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John  Sv/ett 


^:-iii  V. 


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HANDBOOK 


OF 


GREEK   AND  ROMAN  HISTORY 


BY 


GEORGES    CASTEGNIER,  B.S.,  B.L. 


>?^< 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


Copyright,  1896,  bt 
AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY. 


UDBK.  OF  GB.  AND  ROM.  HIST. 
VV.    P.    I  ^  ^. 


•^-c^ 


DS7 


PKEFACE. 


The  purpose  of  this  Handbook  of  Greek  and  Eoman 
History  is  to  facilitate  the  work  of  the  student,  and,  through 
a  system  of  condensation,  to  make  the  facts  of  history  clear  to 
his  mind.  It  is  not  offered  as  a  substitute  for  the  excellent 
text-books  of  Greek  and  Eoman  history  now  in  use,  but  as  an 
accessory  and  a  work  of  reference.  It  is  also  intended  to  be 
used  as  an  aid  in  reviewing  the  subjects  already  studied  in  the 
larger  works,  and  will  be  found  useful  for  students  preparing 
for  the  college  examinations  who  wish  to  refresh  their  minds 
in  regard  to  the  salient  persons  and  facts  of  ancient  history. 

The  author  desires  his  colleagues  to  point  out  any  serious 
errors  or  omissions  which  may  detract  from  the  value  of  this 
work. 


54! 600 


'  •  •    • 


HANDBOOK   OF   GREEK   HISTORY 


o^^c 


Abd^ra.  An  ancient  city  of  Thrace,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Nestus,  founded  by  the  lonians  after  the  defeat  inflicted  upon 
them  by  Cyrus  (544  b.c). 

Abydos.  A  city  of  Asia,  on  the  Hellespont,  opposite  Sestos, 
where  the  Spartan  fleet  commanded  by  Mindarus  was  defeated 
by  the  Athenians  under  Thrasybulus  and  Thrasyllus  (411  b.c). 

Acanthus.  A  city  on  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  of  Mount 
Athos.  Its  inhabitants  were  rewarded  by  Xerxes  for  preparing 
a  canal  for  the  passage  of  his  troops.  The  Acanthians  joined 
the  Peloponnesian  alliance  against  the  Athenians  (423  b.c). 

Acarnania.  A  province  of  northwestern  Greece,  the  scene 
of  some  of  the  victories  of  the  Athenian  general  Demosthenes 
over  the  Peloponnesians,  led  by  Eurylochus.  Acarnania  was 
forced  to  submit  to  Sparta  under  Agesilaus  (391  b.c). 

Achaean  League.  A  union  of  the  principal  states  of  Pelopon- 
nesus (281-146  B.C.),  formed  for  the  purpose  of  freeing  them- 
selves from  the  Macedonian  yoke.  The  chief  promoters  of  the 
movement  were  Aratus  and  Philopoemen. 

Achseus.     Son  of  Xuthus  and  progenitor  of  the  Achaeans. 

Achaia.  A  district  of  Peloponnesus,  south  of  the  Corinthian 
Gulf. 

Achelous.  The  largest  river  of  northwestern  Greece.  It 
divided  Aetolia  from  Acarnania. 

A'cragas.     See  Agrigentum. 

1 


2  GREEK  HISTORY 

Acr6polis.  The  citadel,  built  on  the  highest  part  of  a  city ; 
^particularly  tlie  -citadel  of  Athens,  destroyed  by  the  Persians 
under  Xerxes  (480  b.,c.). 

;  ,/A'ctej   /TJie  eastern  peninsula  of  Chalcidice.    Xerxes  opened 
a  canal  through  the  isthmus  when  he  invaded  Greece. 

-ffigina.  An  island  in  the  Saronic  Gulf,  between  Attica  and 
Argolis.  Aegina,  its  chief  city,  was  the  commercial  rival  of 
Athens  and  became  its  political  enemy,  because  the  Aegine- 
tans  offered  to  help  Darius.  The  Athenians  asked  aid  of 
Sparta  (see  Cleomenes).  Under  Pericles,  Aegina  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Athenians  (456  b.c).  It  was  liberated  by  Lysan- 
der  (404  b.c). 

.ffigosp6tami.  A  barren  and  uninhabited  beach  of  Thrace, 
where  Conon,  commanding  the  Athenian  fleet,  was  completely 
defeated  by  the  Spartan  general  Lysander  (405  b.c). 

-Si'schines.  An  Athenian  orator  and  rival  of  Demosthenes; 
he  was  sent  with  the  latter  and  Philocrates  as  ambassador  to 
Philip  of  Macedonia  (347  b.c). 

.ffi'schylus  (525-4:56  b.c).  A  famous  Greek  tragic  poet,  who 
distinguished  himself  at  Marathon  and  Salamis. 

Mt6li&.  A  province  of  central  Greece,  north  of  the  Corin- 
thian Gulf. 

^t61ian  League.  A  league  established  about  280  b.c,  com- 
posed of  mountainous  tribes  of  Aetolia.  It  never  attained  the 
importance  of  the  Achaean  League,  with  which  it  engaged  in 
conflict. 

Agesandridas.  A  Spartan  admiral,  who  defeated  the  Athe- 
nians at  Eretria  (411  b.c). 

Agesilaus.  King  of  Sparta,  brother  and  successor  of  Agis, 
whose  son,  Leoty chides,  was  barred  from  the  throne  (399  b.c). 
He  conducted  successful  campaigns  in  Asia  against  the  satrap 
Tissaphernes ;  defeated  the  Athenians  and  Thebans  at  Coronea 
(394  B.C.) ;  invaded  the  Theban  territory,  but  without  results 
(378-377  B.C.);  fought  Epaminondas  at  the  very  walls  of  Sparta 
(370  B.C.)  and  again  repulsed  him  in  362  b.c  He  died  in  Libya, 
aged  84,  while  retiirning  from  an  expedition  in  Egypt  (361  b.c). 


GREEK   HISTORY  3 

Agesipolis.    Son  and  successor  of  Pausanias,  King  of  Sparta. 

A'gis  II.  King  of  Sparta.  He  conducted  an  unlucky  cam- 
paign against  Argos,  and  practically  won  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea  (418  B.C.),  in  which  the  Athenians  and  Mantineans  sided 
with  Argos.  (Do  not  confound  this  battle  of  Mantinea  with  that 
of  362  B.C.,  in  which  Epaminondas  was  killed.)  Agis  besieged 
Athens  with  Lysander,  subdued  her,  and  ended  the  Peloponne- 
sian  War  (404  b.c).     He  died  in  399  b.c. 

A'gis  III.  King  of  Sparta,  defeated  by  Philip  of  Macedon 
(338  B.C.).  He  died  in  330  b.c,  after  having  failed  in  some 
unimportant  campaigns  against  Alexander. 

A'gora.  The  assembly  of  common  freemen.  It  took  part  in 
no  debate  and  did  not  vote,  but  was  called  upon  to  listen  to 
matters  discussed  by  the  king  and  his  chiefs.  This  body  be- 
came later  the  powerful  popular  assembly. 

Agrigtoum  (Acragas).  A  city  of  southern  Sicily,  modern 
Girgenti ;  governed  by  the  tyrant  Phalaris  (560-540  b.c.)  ; 
sacked  by  the  Carthaginians  (406  b.c);  recovered  by  Diony- 
sius  I.,  Tyrant  of  Syracuse  (391  b.c)  ;  captured  by  the  Romans 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  Wars  (264  b.c). 

Alcibiades.  Son  of  Clinias.  He  came  of  an  ancient  and 
wealthy  family  and  was  very  popular  with  the  masses.  He 
became  prominent  as  commander  of  the  fleet  with  Nicias  and 
Lamachus  against  Sicily  (415  b.c).  As  he  was  on  the  point  of 
starting,  his  enemies  accused  him  before  the  Ecclesia  of  the 
mutilation  of  the  statues  of  the  god  Hermes,  and  also  of  pro- 
faning the  Eleusinian  Mysteries.  He  denied  the  charges,  but 
a  trial  was  refused,  as  his  enemies  preferred  to  accuse  him 
during  his  absence.  The  expedition  started;  Alcibiades  was 
soon  recalled  for  trial,  but  escaped  and  joined  the  Spartans 
against  Athens.  After  the  Sicilian  War,  he  fell  into  disgrace 
with  King  Agis  II.,  to  whose  court'  he  had  retired,  left  Sparta- 
and  went  to  the  court  of  the  satrap  Tissaphernes.  There  he 
used  his  influence  to  prevent  Tissaphernes  from,  helping  Sparta, 
but  also  advised  him  not  to  help  Athens  and  to  let  her  fight 
with  Sparta,  thus  isolating  the  allies  of  the  two  cities,  whom 


4  GREEK   HISTORY 

Tissaphernes  could  easily  conquer.  Alcibiades'  friends,  led  by 
Peisander  of  Samos,  Thrasybulus,  and  Thrasyllus,  obtained  his 
recall;  he  returned  after  four  years,  was  pardoned,  and  en- 
trusted with  command.  He  won  the  battle  of  Cyzicus,  410 
B.C.,  against  Mindarus  and  the  Peloponnesians.  He  was  once 
more  given  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  but  left  it  to  Antio- 
chus.  During  his  absence,  Antiochus  lost  the  battle  of  Notium 
(407  B.C.).  Alcibiades  was  held  responsible  for  the  disaster  and 
banished ;  he  was  murdered,  404  b.c. 

Alcmaednidae.  A  noble  family  at  Athens,  a  member  of  which, 
the  archon  Megacles,  betraying  his  promise,  put  to  death  the 
followers  of  Cylon,  632  b.c.  Exiled  by  Peisistratus,  they  re- 
built the  temple  at  Delphi,  and  succeeded  in  having  the  Spar- 
tans drive  Hippias  from  Athens,  thus  being  rehabilitated. 

Alexander  I.,  ruler  of  Macedonia,  was  friendly  to  the  Greeks 
during  their  war  against  Xerxes.  He  was  sent  by  Mardonius 
to  induce  the  Athenians  to  abandon  the  Grecian  League  against 
Xerxes,  but  in  spite  of  very  advantageous  terms,  his  proposi- 
tion was  refused  (479  b.c). 

Alexander  III.,  the  Great,  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon  (356- 
323  B.C.).  He  ascended  the  throne  at  twenty,  completed  his 
father's  conquests  in  Thrace,  carried  his  arms  beyond  the 
Danube,  and  subdued  the  Illyrians.  The  rumor  of  his  death 
being  spread,  the  Thebans  revolted  and  asked  aid  of  Athens. 
Demosthenes  advocated  war,  but  Athens  was  cautious.  Alex- 
ander was  not  dead ;  he  marched  on  Thebes,  took  it  by  storm, 
razed  the  walls,  and  sold  the  inhabitants  as  slaves.  The  tem- 
ple and  the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar  were  spared  (335  b.c). 
This  was  a  warning  to  the  rest  of  Greece.  Athens  sent  am- 
bassadors, and  Alexander  treated  with  them,  as  he  did  not  wish 
any  enemies  in  Greece  while  engaged  in  his  Asiatic  campaign. 
Alexander's  aim  was  the  invasion  of  Persia  against  Darius  III. 
In  334  B.C.  he  crossed  the  Hellespont  and  entered  Asia  with  a 
large  army,  leaving  his  general,  Antipater,  with  troops  to  look 
after  affairs  in  Greece.  In  the  first  engagement,  at  the  river 
Granicus,  the  Persians  were  defeated.     The  cities  south  of  the 


GREEK  HISTORY  6 

Hellespont  surrendered  to  Alexander.  The  conqueror  passed 
through  Asia  Minor,  overcoming  every  obstacle,  and  reached 
Gordium.  Darius  III.  collected  an  enormous  army  at  Babylon, 
encountered  his  antagonist  at  the  pass  of  Issus,  was  defeated, 
and  fled  (333  b.c).  His  mother  Sisygambis,  his  wife,  and  chil- 
dren were  made  prisoners.  Alexander  treated  them  with  all  the 
honor  due  to  their  rank.  After  Issus,  Alexander  proceeded  to 
Damascus,  where  he  found  Darius'  treasures.  The  unfortunate 
monarch  tried  peace  negotiations  with  Alexander,  but  they 
failed,  and  the  war  was  renewed.  Alexander  besieged,  took, 
and  destroyed  Tyre.  Darius  tried  again,  but  in  vain,  to  secure 
terms  of  peace.  Alexander  marched  through  Palestine,  re- 
ceiving the  homage  of  all  cities  but  Gaza.  Batis,  its  governor, 
resisted,  but  was  finally  overpowered  and  killed.  Egypt  was 
conquered  without  resistance,  and  Alexandria  was  founded. 
After  two  years  Alexander  resumed  his  war  against  Darius, 
met  him  near  Arbela,  at  a  spot  known  as  Gangamela,  and 
routed  his  army.  Babylon  and  Susa  were  taken;  Persepolis 
was  destroyed.  Alexander  pursued  Darius  as  far  as  Ecbatana, 
where  the  latter  took  refuge  on  land  beyond  the  Oxus.  His 
followers,  disgusted  at  his  cowardice,  imprisoned  him  and  pro- 
claimed his  cousin  Bessus  king  of  the  East.  As  Alexander 
was  approaching,  Bessus  killed  Darius.  Bessus  was  after- 
wards executed  (330  e.g.).  Alexander  undertook  an  expedi- 
tion in  India,  and  died  at  Babylon  in  June,  323  b.c. 

Alexander  of  Pherae.  Son-in-law  of  Jason  of  Pherae.  His 
administration  gave  rise  to  a  rebellion  and  brought  war  with 
Thebes.  Pelopidas,  the  Theban  general,  was  imprisoned,  but 
Epaminondas  was  given  the  command  of  the  army.  He  de- 
feated Alexander  and  released  Pelopidas  (368  b.c).  Four 
years  later  the  war  was  renewed.  Pelopidas  was  killed,  but 
Alexander  was  deprived  of  all  his  possessions  except  Pherae, 
and  shortly  afterwards  he  was  murdered  (364  b.c). 

Alexandria.  A  city  of  Egypt  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  332  b.c 

Alpheus.     A  river  of  Arcadia,  flowing  into  the  Ionian  Sea. 


6  GREEK  HISTORY 

Ambrdcia.  A  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Epirus.  It  joined 
the  Aetolians  against  Athens,  but  was  badly  defeated  by  the 
Athenian  general  Demosthenes  (426  b.c).  Philip  of  Macedon 
established  a  garrison  in  Ambracia  after  the  congress  of 
Corinth  (338  b.c).  At  his  death  the  inhabitants  expelled  the 
garrison  and  revolted,  but  were  subdued  by  Alexander  (336  b.c). 

Amph^a.  A  fortress  on  the  Messenian  side,  taken  by  the 
Spartans  in  the  First  Messenian  War,  about  743  b.c 

Amphicty6nic  Council.  The  so-called  Amphictyonies,  or 
leagues  of  neighbors,  were  associations  of  cities  or  tribes  for 
the  celebration  of  religious  ceremonies  and  the  protection  of 
some  temple.  Chief  of  these  was  the  Delphic  Amphictyony, 
which  had  in  charge  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  Mem- 
bers of  the  leagues  took  an  oath  not  to  destroy  any  Amphic- 
tyonic  town,  nor  to  cut  it  off  from  a  water  supply  in  time  of 
war. 

Amphipolis.  A  colony  of  Athens  on  the  river  Strymon  in 
southern  Thrace.  It  was  taken  by  Brasidas  and  the  Pelopon- 
nesians  in  423  b.c  The  next  year  Cleon  led  the  Athenians 
in  order  to  take  back  Amphipolis,  but  they  were  repulsed. 
Brasidas  and  Cleon  were  killed.  Amphipolis  was  taken  by 
Philip  of  Macedon,  through  treachery,  in  357  b.c 

Antalcidas,  Peace  of,  so  called  after  a  celebrated  Spartan.  It 
was  signed  in  387  b.c  between  Persia  and  Sparta,  thus  ending 
the  Corinthian  War. 

A'ntioch.    A  famous  city  of  northern  Syria  on  the  Orontes. 

Antiochus.  He  was  left  in  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet  by 
Alcibiades,  and  lost  the  battle  of  Notium  against  the  Spartans 
led  by  Lysander,  407  b.c 

Antipater.  A  general  of  Alexander  the  Great,  left  in  com- 
mand of  an  army  in  Greece,  while  Alexander  marched  to  the 
conquest  of  Persia. 

Apulia.  The  Spartan  assembly  of  freemen,  thirty  years  old 
or  over,  who  met  once  a  month  to  debate  upon  subjects  passed 
by  the  Gerousia,  such  as  war,  dethroning  of  kings,  etc.  The 
voting  was  done  by  acclamation. 


GREEK  HISTORY  7 

Aratus.     See  Achaean  League. 

Arbela.  A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  near  which,  at  a  spot  called 
Gangamela  (the  house  of  the  camel),  Alexander  the  Great 
defeated  Darius  III.  in  331  b.c. 

Arcadia.  A  province  in  the  central  part  of  Peloponnesus. 
The  Arcadians  aided  the  Messenians  against  Sparta  during 
the  Second  Messenian  War,  but  their  king,  Aristocrates,  de- 
serted his  allies  and  caused  their  defeat  (650  b.c).  The  Arca- 
dians joined  the  Pisatans,  seized  Olympia,  and  celebrated  the 
games  in  spite  of  Sparta.  They  were  finally  defeated  and  sub- 
jugated. 

Archidamus.  King  of  Sparta.  He  was  opposed  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War,  but,  yielding  to  the  wish  of  the  people,  he 
took  command  of  the  army.  He  invaded  Attica  and  ravaged 
it  (431  B.C.).  He  made  a  second  invasion  the  next  year  during 
the  plague,  and  laid  siege,  without  success,  to  Plataea,  an  ally 
of  Athens. 

A'rchon.  A  member  of  a  board  of  nine  officers  who  gov- 
erned Athens.  The  chief  archon  was  called  Eponymus;  the 
second,  King  Archon;  the  third,  Polemarch;  the  remaining 
six  were  called  Thesmothetae.  The  ex-archons  formed  the 
Areopagus. 

Aredpagus.  The  Council  of  Athens,  composed  of  ex-archons. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  Hill  of  Ares  (Areos  Pagos),  where 
it  met.  It  was  reformed  by  Solon  in  504  b.c.  The  Areopagus 
lost  its  importance  with  the  ascendency  of  the  democratic  party 
just  before  Pericles  became  leader  at  Athens  (460  b.c),  retain- 
ing only  jurisdiction  over  cases  of  homicide. 

Argimisae.  A  cluster  of  small  islands  off  the  coast  of  Aeolis 
in  Asia  Minor,  south  of  Lesbos,  where  Conon,  commanding  the 
Athenian  fleet,  defeated  the  Peloponnesians  led  by  Callicra- 
tidas,  who  lost  his  life  in  the  engagement  (406  b.c). 

A'rgos.  The  chief  city  of  Argolis,  in  eastern  Peloponnesus. 
One  of  its  early  kings  was  Pheidon,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  coin  copper  and  silver  in  Greece.  Yielding  to  the 
persuasion  of  the  Corinthians,  the  Argives  became  the  leaders 


8  GREEK  HISTORY 

of  the  league  against  Sparta  during  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
The  Spartans  led  by  Agis  invaded  Argolis,  but  the  king  let 
slip  the  opportunity  of  annihilating  his  enemy,  and  granted 
an  armistice.  The  Athenians,  led  by  Alcibiades,  joined  the 
League.  King  Agis,  learning  that  the  League  threatened 
Tegea  in  Arcadia,  hastened  to  Mantinea  and  there  inflicted 
a  fearful  defeat  upon  the  Argives  and  their  allies  (418  b.c). 
Argos  played  a  part  in  the  Corinthian  War,  joining  Corinth, 
Athens,  and  Thebes,  aided  by  the  troops  and  ships  of  Persia, 
against  Sparta. 

Aristagoras.  A  tyrant  of  Miletus,  who  incited  the  Greek 
cities  of  Ionia  to  revolt  against  the  Persian  dominion.  He 
implored  aid  from  Cleomenes  of  Sparta,  but  was  refused ;  he 
then  applied  successfully  to  Athens.  The  Athenians,  joined 
by  the  Eretrians  and  Euboeans,  marched  upon  Sardis  in  Lydia 
(Asia  Minor)  and  burned  the  city.  The  Athenians,  however, 
deserted  the  cause  of  Aristagoras,  and  the  rebellion  was  ended 
by  the  satrap  Artaphernes,  who  won  the  naval  battle  of  Lade 
(Miletus).  Aristagoras  escaped  to  Thrace,  where  he  was  killed 
in  498  B.C. 

Aristeides  (Aristides).  He  was  the  son  of  Lysimachus.  Being 
of  a  middle  class  family,  his  position  was  wholly  due  to  his 
own  ability.  He  was  rigidly  just,  honorable,  and  cool-headed. 
This  last  quality  was  not  in  accordance  with  the  Athenian 
character,  a  well-known  trait  of  which  was  to  act  on  the 
impulse  of  the  moment.  Aristeides  was  ostracized  for  advo- 
cating a  quiet  and  conservative  policy  toward  Sparta,  as  op- 
posed to  Themistocles.  When  Xerxes  compelled  the  Athe- 
nians to  evacuate  their  city,  he  returned  under  an  amnesty 
issued  to  all  exiles.  Aristeides  distinguished  himself  at 
Salamis,  Plataea,  and  Byzantium.  He  was  the  promoter  of 
the  Confederacy  of  Delos,  of  which  he  became  president.  He 
supplanted  Pausanias  as  commander  of  the  joint  fleet  of 
Athens  and  Sparta.  His  political  enemy  was  Themistocles, 
whose  cupidity  he  exposed.  He  died,  regretted  and  honored, 
in  468  B.C. 


GREEK  HISTORY  9 

Aristeus.  A  Corinthian  general  who  lost  a  battle  at  Potidaea 
against  the  Athenians  led  by  Callias,  the  latter  being  killed 
(430  B.C.). 

Arist6crates.  The  king  and  leader  of  the  Arcadians  in  the 
Second  Messenian  War  against  Sparta.  He  abandoned  his 
allies,  the  Messenians,  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  thus  caused 
their  defeat.  He  was  stoned  to  death  by  his  subjects 
(650  B.C.). 

1.  Aristodemus.  A  Messenian  leader  in  the  First  Messenian 
War.  In  vain  he  offered  his  daughter  as  a  sacrifice  to  secure 
the  protection  of  the  gods  and  to  assure  victory.  After  hold- 
ing out  for  twelve  years  at  Mount  Ithome,  war  and  famine 
caused  the  Messenians  to  succumb,  and  Aristodemus  slew  him- 
self in  despair  (723  b.c). 

2.  Aristodemus.  The  Spartan  coward  who  kept  himself  aloof 
from  the  battle  of  Therm.opylae  (480  b.c),  and  thus  escaped 
the  fate  of  Leonidas  and  his  comrades.  Being  an  object  of 
loathing  to  every  one,  he  voluntarily  lost  his  life  at  Plataea. 

Aristogeiton.     See  Harmodius. 

Aristomenes.  Leader  of  the  Messenians  in  the  Second  Mes- 
senian War.  He  was  defeated  at  the  fortress  of  Ira  and  died 
at  Ehodes.     (See  Ceadas.) 

Aristophanes  (450-385  b.c).  The  foremost  writer  of  Greek 
comedy.  He  pictured  everyday  life  in  his  works,  —  the 
Clouds,  the  Knights,  the  Birds,  and  the  Wasjjs. 

A'ristotle.  A  disciple  of  Plato  (384-322  b.c).  One  of  the 
greatest  Greek  philosophers,  whose  writings  on  rhetoric, 
logic,  poetry,  ethics,  and  politics  have  been  studied  for  cen- 
turies. 

Artabazus.  A  general  of  Xerxes.  He  protected  the  retreat 
of  the  troops  at  the  Hellespont,  and  then  proceeded  to  Chalci- 
dice  to  punish  the  cities  of  Olynthus  and  Potidaea  for  their 
revolt  against  Persian  authority.  Olynthus  was  taken  and  the 
inhabitants  slain,  but  an  unusual  rise  of  the  sea  compelled 
Artabazus  to  resume  his  march  to  Thessaly  in  order  to  join 
Mardonius.     After  the  defeat  of  Plataea  (479  b.c),  where  he 


10  GREEK  HISTORY 

treacherously  left  the  battlefield,  he  returned  to  Thrace  and 
thence  to  Asia. 

1.  Artaphlrnes.  Satrap  of  Lydia  and  brother  of  Darius  I.  He 
conducted  an  expedition  against  the  Greek  islands.  He  plotted 
against  Aristagoras  of  Miletus,  who  had  organized  a  campaign 
against  Naxos  in  order  to  win  that  island  for  Darius  I.,  and 
thus  gain  the  Persian  favor.  Artaphernes  managed  to  have 
Megabates,  a  Persian  noble,  made  second  in  command  to 
Aristagoras.  These  two  men  disagreed,  and  Megabates  secretly 
sent  word  to  Naxos  of  the  contemplated  attack.  When  Arista- 
goras arrived  he  found  the  inhabitants  well  prepared,  and  so 
could  do  nothing.  The  private  interests  of  Artaphernes  and 
Aristagoras  brought  about  a  revolt  in  Ionia  and  in  many  parts 
of  Greece  against  the  Persian  dominion.  Aristagoras  obtained 
a  fleet  from  Athens  and  Eretria,  and  attacked  Sardis,  the  resi- 
dence of  Artaphernes.  The  Greeks  drove  Artaphernes  into 
the  citadel  and  burnt  the  town.  To  avenge  the  destruction  of 
Sardis,  Artaphernes  assembled  all  his  forces  for  an  attack 
upon  Miletus.  He  took  the  city  after  a  siege,  burnt  it,  and 
reduced  the  inhabitants  to  slavery.  Several  other  towns  also 
submitted. 

2.  Artaphernes,  the  younger  son  of  the  above,  was  a  satrap 
of  Darius  I.,  and  lost  the  battle  of  Marathon  (490  b.c). 

Artax^rxes  I.  The  son  and  successor  of  Xerxes.  Themis- 
tocles  took  refuge  at  his  court  during  his  ostracism.  Arta- 
xerxes  treated  with  the  Athenians,  who  had  sent  Callias  as 
ambassador  (465-425  b.c). 

Artaxirxes  II.  The  son  and  successor  of  Darius  II.  (404  e.g.). 
His  younger  brother  Cyrus,  a  pretender  to  the  throne,  revolted 
and  asked  his  Spartan  friends  for  troops  to  march  against  him. 
The  two  armies  met  at  Cunaxa,  not  far  from  Babylon.  Cyrus 
was  defeated  and  killed  (401  b.c).  It  was  after  this  battle 
that  the  famous  Ketreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  took  place.  (See 
Xenophon.)  Artaxerxes  signed  the  treaty  of  Antalcidas  with 
Greece  (387  b.c)  which  ended  the  Corinthian  War.  His  reign 
ended  in  359  B.C. 


GREEK  HISTORY  11 

Artemisium.  A  tract  of  country  on  the  north  coast  of  Euboea. 
Here  the  Athenian  fleet  retreated  before  Xerxes  in  480  b.c. 

As6pus.     A  river  of  Boeotia.     (See  Plataea.) 

Athens.  The  principal  city  of  Attica.  It  was  first  called 
Cecropia  from  its  founder  Cecrops.  After  the  fall  of  royalty 
and  the  establishment  of  the  archons,  came  the  legislation  of 
Solon,  594 ;  the  tyranny  of  Peisistratus,  560 ;  the  expulsion  of 
Hippias,  510 ;  wars  with  the  Medes,  492-449.  Athens  rose  to 
the  first  rank  among  Greek  cities  under  the  administration  of 
Pericles,  461-429.  The  Peloponnesian  War,  431-404,  ended 
with  the  submission  of  Athens  to  the  Lacedaemonians,  thus 
ceding  the  supremacy  to  Sparta.  Athens  regained  some  influ- 
ence during  the  Spartan  and  Theban  conflict  (378-362),  but 
could  not  supersede  Sparta.  In  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of 
Demosthenes,  Athens  had  to  submit  to  Philip  of  Macedon  in 
338.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Athens'  periods  of  pros- 
perity and  adversity  were  at  an  end,  and  the  city  submitted 
to  the  Romans  with  the  rest  of  Greece  in  146.  Athens  tried 
to  shake  off  the  Roman  yoke  at  the  time  of  the  Mithradatic 
wars.     It  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Sulla  in  87  b.c. 

A'thos,  Mount.  A  promontory  at  the  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Acte,  where  the  Persian  fleet  under  Mardonius  was 
destroyed  (492  b.c). 

A'ttalus.  A  general  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  whose  niece, 
Cleopatra,  the  monarch  married.  He  was  murdered  by  order 
of  Alexander  (336  b.c). 

A'ttica.  A  province  of  the  eastern  part  of  Greece.  Athens 
was  the  capital. 


Babylon.  A  city  of  Asia  Minor  on  the  Euphrates,  taken 
from  King  Narbonadius  by  Cyrus  the  Great  in  529  b.c  At 
the  accession  of  Darius  I.  Babylon  tried  to  free  itself,  but 
Darius  confirmed  his  power  and  founded  the  Persian  Empire. 
Babylon  was  taken  from  Darius  III.  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  died  there  (323  b.c). 


12  GREEK   HISTORY 

Bactria.  A  province  of  Asia  Minor  conquered  by  Alex- 
ander. 

Batis.  Governor  of  Gaza,  a  city  of  Palestine.  He  refused 
to  surrender  to  Alexander,  and  was  defeated  in  the  battle  which 
followed  (332  e.g.). 

Bema.  At  first  the  Ecclesia  met  on  a  hill  near  the  Acropo- 
lis, thought  to  be  the  same  as  the  Pnyx  Hill  of  to-day.  This 
spot  was  called  the  Bema. 

Bessus.  Cousin  of  Darius  TIL  and  satrap  of  Bactria.  He 
tried  to  become  king  of  the  East  after  the  escape  of  Darius  to 
Ecbatana,  but  his  attempt  was  unsuccessful.  Learning  that 
Bessus  and  his  followers  had  killed  Darius,  Alexander  avenged 
the  death  of  his  former  enemy  and  caused  Bessus  to  be  exe- 
cuted (329  B.C.). 

Boeotia.  A  Greek  province  north  of  Attica.  It  was  con- 
que^-ed  by  the  Athenians  (456  b.c.)  ;  revolted  in  447  b.c.  ;  was 
subjugated  by  Xerxes;  joined  Sparta  in  the  Peloponnesian 
War;  was  invaded  by  Philip  of  Macedon  (338  b.c). 

Boiile.  An  assembly  of  401  members,  organized  by  Draco, 
which  took  over  from  the  Areopagus  the  political  duties,  and 
prepared  measures  to  be  put  before  the  Ecclesia.  It  may  be 
compared  to  the  Roman  Senate.  As  reformed  by  Solon,  it  con- 
sisted of  400  members,  and  after  its  reorganization  by  Cleis- 
thenes,  of  500. 

Brasidas.  A  Spartan  general  of  the  Peloponnesian  War; 
killed  at  Amphipolis  in  Thrace  (422  b.c).  His  death  was  a 
great  loss  to  the  Spartans. 

Byzantium.  Modern  Constantinople ;  an  important  Persian 
fortress  of  Thrace,  founded  about  658  b.c  by  the  Megarians. 
It  was  taken  by  Pausanius  in  478  b.c,  but  on  account  of  his 
treachery  the  fleet  refused  to  obey  him,  and  the  command 
passed  to  Aristides  and  Cimon.  .  Byzantium  acknowledged 
Alexander's  rule.  It  revolted  against  Athens  at  the  time  of 
Pericles,  but  was  subdued.  Having  again  revolted,  it  was  cap- 
tured by  Alcibiades  (408  b.c).  It  was  attacked  by  Philip  of 
Macedon,  who  was  repulsed  by  Phocion  (339  b.c). 


GREEK  HISTORY  13 


Cadmeia  (Cadmea).  The  citadel  of  Thebes;  its  name  was 
derived  from  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  the  city.  It  was  taken 
by  Phoebidas,  the  Spartan,  through  the  treachery  of  the 
Theban  Leontiades  (382  e.g.),  but  was  recovered  three  years 
later  through  the  concentrated  efforts  of  the  Thebans,  the 
Athenians,  and  their  allies. 

Callias  was  sent  by  Pericles  to  negotiate  the  Thirty  Years' 
Peace  between  Athens  and  Sparta  (445  e.g.). 

Callicratidas.  A  Spartan  admiral.  He  succeeded  Lysander, 
whose  term  of  office  had  expired.  He  was  defeated  and 
drowned  at  the  battle  of  Arginusae  against  Conon  and  the 
Athenians  (406  e.g.). 

Callimachus.     See  Marathon. 

Cambyses.  A  Persian  monarch  (529-521  e.g.),  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  conquered  Egypt.  He  had 
secretly  murdered  his  brother  Bardes,  or  Smerdis,  but  an  im- 
poster  called  Gomates,  passing  himself  off  as  Bardes,  caused  a 
widespread  rebellion  in  his  own  favor,  and  Cambyses  com- 
mitted suicide. 

Ceadas.  A  pit  at  Sparta  into  which  prisoners  were  thrown. 
It  is  related  that  Aristomenes,  the  Messenian  leader  in  the 
Second  Messenian  War,  was  precipitated  into  it,  but  escaped 
uninjured  through  a  subterranean  opening  in  the  rock. 

Cecrops.     An  Egyptian,  the  mythical  founder  of  Athens. 

Chabrias.  An  Athenian  general  who  defeated  the  Spartan 
fleet  at  Naxos  (376  e.g.).  He  was  killed  at  the  naval  attack 
upon  Chios  during  the  Social  War  (375  e.g.). 

Chaeron^a.  A  city  of  Boeotia,  where  Philip  of  Macedon  van- 
quished the  Thebans  and  Athenians  during  the  Third  Sacred 
War  in  338  e.g.  There  fell  to  a  man  the  famous  Sacred  Band 
of  Thebans. 

Chares.  An  Athenian  general  in  the -Social  War.  He  played 
a  small  part  at  the  siege  of  Byzantium  and  commanded  with 
Lysicles  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea. 

HAND.  GK.  &  ROM.  HIST. — 2 


14  GREEK  HISTORY 

Chios.  An  island  of  the  Aegean  Sea,  near  the  Asiatic  coast, 
conquered  by  Cyrus.  It  joined  the  Peloponnesian  Alliance 
against  Athens,  but  was  reconquered  after  the  battle  of  Ere- 
tria  (411  b.c). 

Cimon.  Son  of  Miltiades.  He  paid  his  father's  fine  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  siege  of  Byzantium  with  Aristeides 
(478  B.C.).  He  helped  the  latter  form  the  Confederation  of 
Delos,  becoming  prominent  in  politics  after  the  death  of  Aris- 
teides. He  was  in  favor  of  keeping  Athens  on  good  terms  with 
Sparta.  Cimon's  policy  was  to  rid  Greece  of  the  Persians ;  he 
liberated  the  Greek  cities  of  Lycia  and  Pamphylia  from  the 
Persians ;  captured  Eion  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon  on 
the  Thracian  shore,  and  won  the  battle  of  the  River  Eury- 
medon  (466  b.c).  His  admiration  for  Sparta  led  him  to 
obtain  from  the  Athenians  the  sending  of  an  army  to  help 
the  Spartans  in  their  troubles  with  Messenia  and  Laconia. 
This  plan  encountered  great  opposition;  the  army  met  with 
reverses  and  returned,  leaving  the  Spartans  dissatisfied. 
This  gave  Pericles  and  Ephialtes,  the  leaders  of  the  anti- 
Spartan  party,  new  weapons.  The  result  was  that  Cimon 
was  ostracized  (461  b.c).  Four  years  later  a  war  broke  out 
between  the  Phocians  and  Boeotians.  The  Spartans  helped 
the  Boeotians.  On  their  return  they  marched  through  Megara 
and  encountered  the  Athenians.  Cimon  tried  to  join  the  ranks 
as  a  private,  but  was  refused ;  he  then  adjured  his  partisans  to 
do  their  duty  and  prove  that  they  were  no  traitors.  The  battle 
fought  at  Tanagra  was  lost  by  the  Athenians  (457  b.c).  Cimon 
was  pardoned  and  recalled.  He  died  in  an  expedition  against 
Artaxerxes  at  Citium  (Cyprus),  449  b.c 

City-State.  The  primitive  city-state  of  Greece  was  made  up 
of  a  number  of  communities,  each  comprising  a  group  of  fami- 
lies, closely  bound  together.  These  were  united  into  large 
groups  known  as  Phratries  or  brotherhoods.  Above  the  Phra- 
tries  were  the  Tribes,  and  above  the  latter  the  City  or  Polls, 
which  had  its  common  altar-hearth,  called  the  Prytaneum,  on 
which  the  sacred  fire  was  kept  constantly  burning. 


GREEK   HISTORY  15 

Clearchus.  Commander  of  Spartan  troops  who  helped  Cyrus 
in  his  revolt  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes.  He  was  massa- 
cred on  his  return  after  the  defeat  of  Cunaxa  (401  b.c). 

Clelsthenes  (Clisthenes).  Son  of  Megacles.  He  caused  the 
fall  of  the  tyrant  Hippias  at  Athens  (511  b.c).  He  became  the 
head  of  the  democratic  party  of  that  city ;  his  rival  was  Isago- 
ras,  who  asked  aid  of  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  to  support  his 
party  and  expel  Cleisthenes.  Cleomenes  took  Athens,  Isagoras 
dissolved  the  senate,  replaced  it  by  a  body  of  300  oligarchs,  and 
exiled  a  large  number  of  democratic  families,  including  Cleis- 
thenes (508  B.C.).  This  order  of  things  lasted  only  a  short 
time ;  Cleisthenes  was  recalled  and  affairs  reestablished  as  in 
the  past.  Cleisthenes  made  great  constitutional  reforms.  (See 
Boule,  Ecclesia,  Ostracism.) 

Cleitus  (Clitus).  A  Macedonian  officer  who  saved  Alexan- 
der's life  at  the  battle  of  the  Granicus.  He  was  killed  by 
Alexander  at  a  feast  for  being  too  outspoken  (329  b.c). 

Cle6mbrotus.  King  of  Sparta.  He  lost  the  battle  of  Leuctra 
against  the  Thebans  led  by  Epaminondas,  and  was  killed  in 
the  conflict  (371  b.c). 

Cle6menes.  King  of  Sparta.  He  aided  Isagoras  in  expelling 
his  political  enemy,  Cleisthenes.  Joined  by  the  Boeotians  and 
the  Chalcidians,  Cleomenes  invaded  Attica,  but  he  was  aban- 
doned by  his  allies  when  his  plot  to  establish  a  tyranny,  with 
Isagoras  at  the  head,  was  discovered.  He  retreated  to  Sparta 
(508  B.C.).  He  defeated  the  Argives  who  had  tried  to  extend 
their  supremacy;  overthrew  his  colleague  Demaratus,  who 
sided  with  the  Aeginetans  who  had  submitted  to  Darius,  and 
replaced  him  by  Leoty chides;  then  he  subjugated  Aegina. 
Finally  he  fell  into  disgrace,  went  to  Arcadia,  and  formed  an 
anti-Spartan  league.  The  Ephors  recalled  him,  as  they  feared 
his  success.  A  few  months  after  his  return  he  was  found  dead 
(490  B.C.). 

Cleon.  A  coarse  demagogue  of  Athens,  who  rose  to  notoriety 
through  the  influence  of  the  populace,  whom  he  encouraged  to 
cast  aside  principle  and  be  guided  by  self-interest  alone.     He 


16  GREEK   HISTORY 

accused  Pericles  of  peculation,  and  caused  an  atrocious  reso- 
lution to  be  passed  authorizing  the  wholesale  murder  of  all 
the  Mitylenaeans,  whose  city  had  surrendered  to  Paches,  the 
Athenian  general.  Fortunately  the  resolution  was  not  carried 
out,  being  strongly  opposed  by  Diodotus,  the  chiefs  alone  being 
executed.  Cleon  was  unfavorable  to  the  peace  with  Sparta  (425 
B.C.)  and  together  with  Demosthenes  defeated  the  Spartans  at 
Pylos  and  Sphacteria.     He  was  killed  at  Amphipolis  (422  b.c). 

Cleruchies.  Allotments  of  conquered  territory;  e.g.  when  the 
Athenians  took  Calchis  in  Euboea  (508  b.c),  they  divided  the 
estates  of  the  rich  families  and  gave  them  to  poor  citizens  of 
Athens. 

Cnidus.  A  city  on  the  coast  of  Caria,  where  the  Spartan 
fleet,  commanded  by  Peisander,  was  defeated  by  the  Athenians 
and  allies  led  by  Conon  and  assisted  by  the  satrap  Pharnabazus 
(394  B.C.)  during  the  Corinthian  War. 

C6non.  An  Athenian  general.  He  was  blockaded  in  Mytilene 
by  Callicratidas,  the  Spartan  commander.  This  precipitated 
the  battle  of  Arginusae,  which  the  Athenians  won,  and  Conon 
was  released  (406  b.c).  After  his  defeat  by  Lysander  at 
Aegospotami,  he  fled  with  eight  vessels  and  took  service  with 
Enagoras,  king  of  Salamis,  in  Cyprus  (405  b.c).  In  394  b.c 
he  won  the  battle  of  Cnidus  against  the  Spartans  led  by 
Peisander.  On  this  occasion,  Conon  had  been  entrusted  with 
part  of  the  fleet  by  Pharnabazus,  satrap  of  Persia,  who  com- 
manded fifty  vessels  himself.  Conon,  by  the.  aid  of  Pharna- 
bazus' seamen  and  money,  rebuilt  the  fortifications  of  the 
Piraeus,  and  the  Long  Walls  (391  b.c).  Through  Spartan 
intrigue  in  Persia,  Conon  was  thrown  into  prison  (390  b.c). 

Corcyra.  An  island  off  the  coast  of  Epirus,  with  a  town  of 
the  same  name.  The  Corcyraeans,  desiring  to  free  themselves 
from  the  yoke  of  Corinth,  went  to  war  with  the  latter  under 
Cypselus  and  Periander.  In  435  b.c  the  town  of  Epidamnus 
(or  Dyrrachium)  on  the  Illyrian  shore,  being  troubled  with  a 
civil  war,  asked  aid  of  the  Corcyraeans,  who  refused ;  Epidam- 
nus then  sent  ambassadors  to  Corinth  and  obtained  assistance. 


GREEK  HISTORY  17 

This  brought  Corinth  and  Corcyra  into  active  war.  The  Cor- 
cyraeans  defeated  their  opponents  at  Actium,  and  Epidamnus 
surrendered.  The  Corinthians  aroused  their  allies,  and  the 
Corcyraeans  asked  and  obtained  the  alliance  of  Athens.  A 
fleet  was  furnished,  but  took  no  active  part  in  the  battle  of 
Tybota,  where  the  Corcyraeans  were  defeated.  In  427  B.C. 
strife  broke  out  in  Corcyra  between  the  party  favoring  peace 
with  Corinth  and  the  one  which  advocated  a  continuance  of 
hostilities.  These  civil  troubles  were  often  renewed.  In 
373  B.C.  Sparta  tried  in  vain  to  take  Corcyra. 

Corinth.  A  city  of  Greece  north  of  Argolis,  on  the  gulf  and 
isthmus  of  the  same  name.  There  was  held  the  congress  of 
the  Greek  provinces  (with  the  exception  of  Argos  and  Thebes) 
for  mutual  action  against  the  invasion  of  Xerxes.  Corinth 
became  an  ally  of  Sparta  in  order  to  bring  about  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War.  After  many  fluctuations  of  war  and  peace  with 
Sparta  and  Athens,  Corinth  finally  submitted  to  Philip  of 
Macedon  after  the  battle  of  Chaeronea.  In  338  B.C.  a  congress 
met  at  Corinth  under  the  presidency  of  Philip,  the  outcome  of 
which  was  the  formation  of  Greece  into  a  great  federal  state 
under  Macedonian  rule. 

Corinthian  War.  This  war  was  brought  about  by  the  emissa- 
ries of  Artaxerxes,  who,  in  order  to  vanquish  the  Spartans, 
formed  a  coalition  of  the  chief  states  of  Greece  against  Lace- 
demon  (see  Cnidus).  It  ended  with  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas, 
381  B.C. 

Coronea.  A  city  near  Lake  Copais  in  Boeotia,  where  the 
Athenians  under  Tolmides  were  defeated  by  the  Boeotians 
(447  B.C.).  Here  also  the  Spartans  under  Agesilaus  defeated 
the  Thebans  and  their  allies  (394  b.c). 

Crimisus.  A  river  of  southern  Sicily.  Timoleon,  the  Corin- 
thian, after  freeing  the  Syracusans  from  the  tyranny  of  Dyoni- 
sius,  defeated  the  Carthaginians  on  its  borders  in  340  B.C. 

Critias.  A  pupil  of  Socrates,  and  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants 
of  Athens.  He  died  in  the  civil  conflict  against  Thrasybulus, 
in  403  B.C.     (See  Thirty  Tyrants.) 


18  GREEK  HISTORY 

Crdesus.  A  king  of  Lydia,  defeated  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  and 
made  prisoner  at  the  siege  of  Sardis,  546  e.g.  It  is  said  that 
he  was  burnt  at  the  stake. 

Crypteia.  A  sort  of  detective  force  having  special  charge  of 
the  Helots. 

Cunaxa.  A  city  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates  near  Baby- 
lon, where  Artaxerxes  defeated  and  killed  Cyrus  in  401  b.c. 

Cyaxares.  The  founder  of  the  Empire  of  the  Medes  after 
the  fall  of  Nineveh. 

Cylon.  He  conspired  to  become  tyrant  of  Athens,  and  seized 
the  Acropolis,  but  was  defeated  and  escaped.  His  followers 
were  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  Archon  Megacles  (612  b.c). 

Cypselus.  Eather  of  Periander  and  tyrant  of  Corinth  (655- 
625  B.C.). 

Cyprus.  A  large  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  between 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  It  first  belonged  to  tlie  Phoenicians, 
then  to  the  Egyptians,  and  was  afterwards  conquered  by  Cam- 
by  ses.  The  inhabitants  joined  the  Ionian  rebellion  led  by 
Aristagoras.  They  were  liberated  from  the  Persian  yoke  by 
the  united  Peloponnesian  fleet  led  by  Pausanias  (about  477  b.c). 

Cyrus  the  Great  (549-529  b.c).  King  of  Elam  (north  of  the 
Persian  Gulf) ;  he  subdued  Media  and  made  Susa  the  capital 
of  his  kingdom.  He  then  vanquished  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia, 
and,  it  is  said,  had  him  burnt  at  the  stake  (546  b.c).  He  took 
Babylon  in  538  b.c  He  died  during  an  expedition  which  he 
undertook  against  the  Massagetae,  a  tribe  which  dwelt  in 
south  Siberia.     His  son  Cambyses  succeeded  him. 

Cyrus  (the  younger),  brother  of  Artaxerxes  II.  He  revolted 
against  him,  procured  Spartan  aid,  and  marched  on  Babylon. 
At  Cunaxa  he  met  Artaxerxes,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  and 
slain  (401  b.c).  This  disaster  was  followed  by  the  Retreat  of 
the  Ten  Thousand,  led  by  Xenophon,  the  Athenian  historian 
and  general. 

Cyzicus.  A  town  of  Mysia  on  the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Mar- 
mora), where  Alcibiades  and  the  Athenians  won  a  great  vic- 
tory over  Mindarus  and  the  Peloponnesian  army  (410  b.c). 


GREEK   HISTORY  19 


Damocles.  A  courtier  of  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  known 
through  the  famous  story  of  the  sword. 

Darius  I.  King  of  Persia  (521-486  b.c),  son  of  Hystaspes. 
He  possessed  himself  of  the  Persian  throne  after  the  death  of 
Cambyses,  divided  his  kingdom  into  twenty  satrapies,  and  ex- 
tended its  boundaries  to  India.  He  then  turned  his  attention 
to  the  west,  gained  possession  of  the  island  of  Samos,  crossed 
the  Bosporus,  and  conducted  a  campaign  against  the  Scythians, 
receiving  homage  from  the  Greek  towns  of  the  coast.  He  took 
into  his  friendship  Histiaeus,  tyrant  of  Miletus,  and  compelled 
him  to  reside  at  Susa.  His  general,  Megabazus,  completed  the 
conquest  of  Thrace,  and  secured  the  submission  of  Macedonia. 
Aristagoras,  ruler  at  Miletus,  persuaded  Darius  to  form  an 
expedition  against  Naxos.  (See  Artaphernes.)  Darius'  great 
aim  was  to  destroy  Athens  and  Athenian  power,  but  he  died 
when  about  to  enter  on  a  third  expedition  against  Greece 
(487  B.C.),  leaving  his  son  Xerxes  as  his  successor. 

Darius  II.  Son  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  king  of  Persia  (425- 
404  B.C.). 

Darius  III.  Last  king  of  Persia  (336-330  b.c.)  ;  overthrown 
by  Alexander  the  Great;  murdered  by  Bessus.  (See  Alex- 
ander.) 

Datis.  A  Mede.  He  commanded  the  Persian  army  with 
Artaphernes,  and  was  defeated  at  Marathon. 

D^carchies.  Oligarchic  governments  of  ten  person^  imposed 
by  Sparta  upon  the  cities  freed  from  Athens. 

Decel6an  War.  The  third  period  of  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
so  called  from  the  town  Decelea,  a  stronghold  of  Attica,  which 
the  Spartans  took  during  this  part  of  their  struggle  with 
Athens. 

Dllium.  A  city  on  the  Boeotian  shore  close  to  the  boundary 
of  Boeotia  and  Attica.  It  was  seized  and  fortified  by  the 
Athenians,  led  by  Hippocrates,  who  utilized  the  walls  of  a 
temple  of  Apollo  in  the  construction  of  the  fortifications.    The 


20  GREEK  HISTORY 

Boeotians  resorted  to  arms  to  avenge  this  sacrilege,  the  Athe- 
nians were  defeated,  and  their  general  was  killed  (424  b.c). 

Dllos,  Confederacy  of.  The  Athenians,  lonians,  Aeolians, 
and  Chalcidians  formed  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance, 
especially  against  the  Persians.  The  funds  were  kept  at 
Delos.  Aristeides  was  one  of  the  j^romoters  of  this  confed- 
eracy. (See  Aristeides.)  After  the  battle  of  the  Eurymedon 
and  other  victories  of  Cimon,  the  Persian  dominion  in  Greece 
was  over,  and,  its  object  being  accomplished,  the  Confederacy 
of  Delos  seemed  to  have  no  reason  for  existing.  Naxos  was 
the  first  to  withdraw.  Athens  objected  to  the  secession, 
blockaded  the  port,  and  captured  the  fleet.  Thasos  revolted 
next,  and  was  at  first  victorious,  but  was  Anally  subdued  by 
Cimon  (463  B.C.).  Afterwards  the  funds  were  kept  in  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens. 

Delphi  (modern  Castri).  A  city  of  Phocis,  on  the  south- 
western slope  of  Mount  Parnassus,  the  seat  of  the  famous 
temple  of  Apollo.  The  Delphian  oracle  played  an  important 
part  in  the  political  and  social  affairs  of  the  Greeks. 

Demaratus.  King  of  Sparta  with  Cleomenes  (510-491  b.c). 
The  two  kings  were  constantly  at  variance,  and  the  unscrupu- 
lous Cleomenes  finally  secured  the  deposition  of  his  rival  by 
bribing  the  oracle.  Demaratus  fled  to  the  court  of  Darius  I., 
and  later  to  that  of  Xerxes,  in  whose  host  he  was  present  with 
the  Persians  at  Thermopylae  (480  b.c). 

1.  Dem6sthenes.  An  Athenian  general.  He  conducted  an 
unsuccessful  campaign  against  the  Aetolians  in  order  to  force 
them  to  enter  into  the  Athenian  alliance,  but  was  victorious  in 
Acarnania  at  Ambracia,  where  he  defeated  the  Peloponnesian 
troops  (426  b.c).  He  undertook  an  expedition  in  Sicily  with 
Eurjanedon,  his  colleague.  During  a  storm  they  took  refuge 
at  Pylos  (Messenia)  and  fortified  themselves.  Eurymedon 
started  for  Sicily  and  left  Demosthenes  in  possession  of  Pylos. 
The  Spartan  fleet,  commanded  by  Brasidas,  failed  to  dislodge 
the  Athenians,  and  the  Spartans  attacked  Sphacteria,  an  island 
south  of  Pylos;   but  Eurymedon  came  back  with  reenforce- 


GREEK  HISTORY  21 

ments,  the  Athenians  were  victorious,  and  the  Spartans  were 
blockaded  on  Sphacteria  (425  b.c).  At  the  time  of  the  Sicilian 
expedition,  Demosthenes  was  sent  to  aid  Nicias  against  Grylip- 
pus  of  Corinth  and  the  Syracusans.  He  was  at  first  success- 
ful, bat  soon  met  with  reverses  and  was  defeated.  Nicias 
tried  to  hold  out  some  time,  but  the  two  generals  were  obliged 
to  retreat  in  disorder,  and  both  were  captured  and  put  to 
death  by  the  Syracusans  (413  b.c). 

2.  Demosthenes  (385-322  b.c).  The  celebrated  Athenian  ora- 
tor. He  advocated  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon,  in  a  series  of 
speeches  (the  famous  Philippics)  filled  with  denunciation.  He 
induced  the  Thebans  not  to  let  Philip  pass  through  Boeotia, 
but  to  take  up  arms  against  him.  He  followed,  in  vain,  the 
same  policy  against  Alexander  and  against  Antipater.  (See 
Lamian  War.) 

Dicasteries.     See  Heliaea. 

Diodotus.     See  Cleon. 

Diogenes  (414-323  b.c).  The  head  of  the  Cynic  philoso- 
phers.    He  lived,  it  is  said,  in  a  tub. 

Dion.  Tyrant  of  Syracuse.  He  overthrew  Dionysius  II.  and 
was  himself  murdered  by  the  Athenian  Callippus  (353  b.c). 
The  people  had  thought  that  Dion  would  give  them  a  demo- 
cratic form  of  government,  but  they  were  bitterly  deceived. 

Dionysius  I.  (431-367  b.c).  Tyrant  of  Syracuse.  He  rose 
from  a  low  position  to  one  of  importance  and  became  tyrant  in 
406  B.C.     He  conducted  a  successful  war  with  Carthage. 

Dionysius  II.  Son  and  successor  of  Dionysius  I.  He  was 
overthrown  by  his  brother-in-law  Dion  (357  b.c),  and  retired  to 
Ortygia,  a  small  island  in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse.  He  recov- 
ered his  throne  in  346,  but  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  Timoleon 
of  Corinth.     He  retired  to  Corinth,  where  he  died  forgotten. 

Doriscus.  A  plain  on  the  Thracian  coast,  where  Xerxes 
reviewed  his  troops  before  invading  Greece. 

Draco.  An  archon  of  Athens  who  made  laws  of  such  severity 
that  it  was  said  they  were  written  in  blood.  He  organized  the 
Council  of  Pour  Hundred  and  One. 


22  GREEK   HISTORY 

Drepana.  A  city  on  the  western  coast  of  Sicily,  which,  as 
well  as  Lilybaeum,  was  ■unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Dionysius, 
tyrant  of  Syracuse. 

E 

Ecbatana.     See  Alexander  the  Great. 

Eccllsia.  A  body  of  Athenian  citizens,  convoked  for  politi- 
cal purposes  at  regular  intervals  not  less  than  ten  times  a 
year ;  they  could  also  be  called  in  extra  sessions.  This  assem- 
bly decided  questions  of  war,  peace,  and  alliances. 

Eg6sta.  A  city  on  the  western  coast  of  Sicily.  Becoming 
involved  in  dispute  with  the  neighboring  city  of  Selinus,  which 
was  aided  by  the  Syracusans,  the  Egestaeans  asked  the  aid  of 
Athens.  After  long  hesitation  and  preparation  the  Athenians 
complied  with  the  request.  (See  Alcibiades,  Nicias,  Sicilian 
War.)  After  the  destruction  of  the  Athenian  fleet  before 
Syracuse,  the  Egestaeans  implored  aid  from  the  Carthagini- 
ans, who,  led  by  Hannibal,  a  grandson  of  Hamilcar,  stormed 
and  took  Selinus  (409  b.c). 

Eion.     See  Cimon. 

Eleusinia.  The  festival  of  the  Eleusinia,  or  celebration  of 
the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  the  highest  religious  festival  of  the 
Greeks,  was  observed  every  fifth  year  at  Eleusis  in  Attica.  It 
was  claimed  that  Alcibiades  profaned  the  mysteries,  thus  bring- 
ing ill-luck  on  the  Athenians  during  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

En6motarcli.  A  sergeant  in  the  Spartan  army,  in  command 
of  twenty-five  men. 

Epamin6nda8.  A  Theban  general,  the  bosom  friend  of  Pelop- 
idas.  He  was  poor,  of  a  thoughtful  disposition,  always  ready 
to  do  his  duty,  never  allowing  self-interest  to  guide  him  in  his 
actions.  Thebes  and  Sparta  being  involved  in  war  over  a  dis- 
pute as  to  a  treaty,  Cleombrotus  and  the  Spartans  invaded 
Boeotia,  and  the  first  battle  took  place  at  Leuctra  (371  b.c). 
Epaminondas  and  the  Thebans  were  victorious.  The  news 
spread  all  over  Greece.  Epaminondas  invaded  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, attacked  the  Achaians,  and  advanced  through  Laconia 


GREEK  HISTORY  23 

to  the  gates  of  Sparta,  against  Agesilaus,  but  without  result. 
He  founded  Messene  on  the  slope  of  Mount  Ithome,  entered 
Thessaly,  and  marched  against  Alexander  of  Pherae  to  release 
Pelopidas,  who  had  been  imprisoned  while  passing  through 
Alexander's  territory  on  a  mission.  In  another  invasion  of 
the  Peloponnesus  (362  b.c),  Sparta  was  saved  by  the  treachery 
of  a  Theban  deserter  who  warned  King  Agesilaus.  Epami- 
nondas  won  the  battle  of  Mantinea  against  the  Spartans  and 
Mantineans,  but  died  on  the  battlefield  (362  B.C.). 

E'phesus.  A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  an  Ionian  colony  on  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  southeast  of  Smyrna.  There  was 
the  beautiful  temple  of  Artemis,  partly  burnt  by  Herostratus 
(356  B.C.)  on  the  night  of  Alexander's  birth.  It  was  partly 
rebuilt,  was  plundered  by  Nero  and  by  the  Goths,  and  was 
finally  razed  by  the  order  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

Ephialtes.     The  betrayer  of  the  Spartans  at  Thermopylae. 

E'phors.  Five  magistrates  of  Sparta.  The  office  was  created 
during  the  Messenian  War.  They  had  executive  power  over 
the  king  and  senate,  and  replaced  the  monarch  when  he  was  at 
war. 

Epidamnus.     See  Corcyra. 

Eponymus.     Name  given  to  the  first  Archon. 

Erectheum.  The  temple  at  Athens  which  contained  the  sa- 
cred wooden  image  of  Athene  and  the  living  snake  which  sym- 
bolized the  presence  of  the  goddess. 

Eretria.  A  city  on  the  coast  of  Euboea.  The  Eretrians 
joined  the  rebellion  of  Aristagoras  and  incurred  the  enmity  of 
Darius,  who  besieged  and  took  the  city.  He  burnt  it,  and  the 
inhabitants  were  made  slaves  (490  b.c).  It  was  there  (411  b.c.) 
that  the  Spartan  fleet  led  by  Agesandridas  defeated  the  Athen- 
ians, who  thus  lost  Euboea. 

Euboea.  A  large  island  on  the  coast  of  Boeotia  and  Attica.  It 
revolted  from  Athens  (446  b.c),  but  was  subdued  by  Pericles. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  War  the  allied  fleet  made  a  descent 
upon  Euboea  and  destroyed  an  Athenian  squadron.  All  the 
Euboean  cities  revolted,  and  Athens  lost  the  island  (411  b.c). 


24  GREEK  HISTORY 

Eupatrids.     The  nobles  of  Athens. 

Euripides.  A  celebrated  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  at  Salamis, 
480  B.C. ;  died  406  b.c. 

Eur6tas.     A  river  of  Laconia  which  ran  through  Sparta. 

Eurybiades.  Commander  of  the  confederate  fleet  at  Euboea 
and  at  Salamis.     (See  Themistocles.) 

1.  Eurymedon.  A  river  of  Pamphylia,  where  Cimon  and  the 
Athenians  won  a  naval  and  land  battle  against  the  Persians 
(466  B.C.). 

2.  Eurymedon.  An  Athenian  general  who  led  with  Sopho- 
cles an  expedition  to  Sicily  while  Demosthenes  held  Pylos 
(425  B.C.),  returned  and  helped  Demosthenes  win  the  battle  of 
Sphacteria.  He  was  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  for  his  unsuc- 
cessful campaign  in  Sicily,  and  was  killed  at  Syracuse  in 
413  B.C.     (See  1.  Demosthenes.) 

F 

Five  Hundred.  A  council  at  Athens  established  by  Cleisthenes. 
(See  Boule.) 

Four  Hundred.  After  the  failure  of  the  expedition  led  by  De- 
mosthenes and  Nicias  against  Syracuse,  civil  trouble  began  at 
Athens  (413  b.c).  It  was  caused  by  Alcibiades,  who  desired 
to  return  to  Athens  and  obtain  political  power.  He  sent  dele- 
gates to  Samos  and  Athens,  promising  the  aid  of  Tissaphernes, 
and  funds  to  fight  the  Peloponnesian  allies,  provided  the 
democracy  was  overthrown  and  oligarchy  established.  With 
such  ofTers  he  won  the  army,  and  although  the  uprising  at 
Samos  was  suppressed,  at  Athens  Peisander  succeeded  in 
establishing  the  government  of  the  Four  Hundred,  and  Alci- 
biades was  recalled.  Their  administration  was  regarded  with 
suspicion  by  the  Athenians  and  their  downfall  was  precipi- 
tated by  the  loss  of  Euboea. 

Four  Hundred  and  One.  A  council  organized  by  Draco,  chosen 
by  lot  from  among  the  citizens.  It  was  reorganized  by  Solon. 
(See  Areopagus  and  Boule.) 


GREEK  HISTORY  25 


Gauls.  The  Gauls  invaded  Greece  in  279  b.c,  crossing  the 
Balkans  and  forcing  the  pass  of  Thermopylae ;  they  attempted 
to  pillage  the  temple  of  Delphi,  but  were  unsuccessful,  and 
were  shortly  after  driven  from  the  peninsula. 

Gaza.  A  city  of  Palestine  whose  governor,  Batis,  refused  to 
do  homage  to  Alexander.     (See  Batis.) 

Gelo.  Tyrant  of  Syracuse  in  484  b.c.  He  defeated  the  Car- 
thaginians near  Himera  (490  b.c).  One  of  the  conditions  of 
the  peace  was  that  the  Carthaginians  should  abandon  human 
sacrifices.  Gelo  received  an  embassy  from  Sparta  and  Athens 
to  obtain  troops  from  him  in  order  to  repulse  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes.  The  envoys  were  not  successful,  as  Gelo's  conditions 
could  not  be  accepted. 

Gerontes.     Members  of  the  Gerousia. 

Geroiisia.  The  senate  of  Sparta,  composed  of  thirty  elders, 
one  for  each  tribe,  organized  by  Lycurgus.  The  kings  were 
ex-officio  members ;  the  others  were  elected  for  life  and  aided 
the  king  in  public  affairs. 

G6rdium.  The  old  capital  of  Phrygia,  the  scene  of  the  well- 
known  story  of  the  Gordian  Knot,  where  Alexander  was  joined 
by  Parmenio,  leading  the  main  body  of  his  army  on  his  march 
through  Asia  Minor.  W 

Granicus.  A  river  ten  miles  inland  from  the  Propontis,  near 
Teleia,  where  Alexander  defeated  Darius  III.  (334  b.c). 

Gylippus.  A  Corinthian  commander  who  helpea  the  Syra- 
cusans  against  the  Athenians,  defeated  them,  captured?the  two 
commanders,  Nicias  and  Demosthenes,  and  had  them  executed 
(413  B.C). 


Haliartus.  A  town  of  Boeotia,  destroyed  by  Xerxes  in 
480  B.C.  The  Spartan  general  Lysander  lost  his  life  here  in  a 
battle  against  the  Thebans  and  their  allies  (395  b.c),  as  King 
Pausanias  failed  to  bring  reenforcements. 


26  GREEK  HISTORY 

Harm6dius.  At  his  death,  Peisistratus  left  the  government 
of  Athens  to  his  sons  Hippias  and  Hipparchus  (527  b.c),  who 
ruled  peacefully  and  harmoniously.  Hipparchus  became  in- 
volved in  an  affair  of  honor  concerning  a  noble  family.  Har- 
modius  conceived  the  plan  of  murdering  the  two  brothers  and 
organized  a  conspiracy  with  his  friend  Aristogeiton  and  others  ; 
the  time  chosen  was  during  the  festival  of  the  Panathenaea. 
Owing  to  an  error,  Hipparchus  was  killed  before  Hippias  had 
arrived.  The  officers  slew  Harmodius  instantly.  Aristogeiton 
was  tortured  and  put  to  death.  Hippias  began  a  tyrannical 
government,  making  away  with  all  those  who  showed  discon- 
tent. This  led  to  an  uprising,  and  after  a  long  resistance 
Hippias  was  defeated.  He  surrendered,  left  the  city,  and 
retired  to  Sigeum  (511  b.c).  In  506  b.c.  we  find  him  at  Sparta 
ready  to  accept  the  Spartans'  help  to  restore  his  tyranny  at 
Athens;  but  the  scheme  failed,  and  Hippias  went  back  to 
Sigeum.  Another  attempt  was  made;  this  time  Hippias 
counted  upon  Darius,  king  of  Persia,  to  help  him  recover  his 
lost  government.  But  Darius  was  defeated  at  Marathon,  and 
Hippias,  who  had  led  him  against  the  Athenians,  gave  up  all 
hopes  of  ever  reestablishing  his  tyranny. 

Heliaea.  A  judicial  body  composed  of  six  thousand  citizens, 
six  hundred  from  each  tribe.  One  thousand  were  held  in 
reserve,  and  the  remainder  divided  into  ten  dicasteries  of  five 
hundred  each.  The  dicasteries  tried  all  cases  between  citizens, 
and  transacted  a  large  part  of  the  law  business  of  the  Empire. 
Their  decision  was  final. 

Hellespont.  A  strait  which  separates  Europe  from  Asia. 
Xerxes  crossed  it  at  the  time  of  his  invasion  of  Greece 
(480  B.C.). 

Helots.  The  name  given  to  the  peoples  conquered  by  Sparta. 
They  were  made  serfs,  their  land  was  confiscated  and  given  to 
the  Spartans.  They  could  be  put  to  death  without  trial,  and 
had  no  political  rights.  Their  masters  formed  them  into  regi- 
ments in  time  of  war.  They  revolted,  and  struggled  for  ten 
years  at  Mount  Ithome,  but  were  finally  subdued  in  455  b.c. 


GREEK   HISTORY  27 

They  were  allowed  to  go  on  condition  that  they  were  never  to 
return  to  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Athenians  gave  them  the 
town  of  Naupactus  on  the  Aetolian  coast  as  an  outpost  for 
Athens  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth. 

Hermae.     See  Alcibiades. 

Hermocrates.  A  Syracusan  commander  during  the  Sicilian 
War. 

Herodotus  (484-425  B.C.).  A  celebrated  historian,  born  at 
Halicarnassus,  in  Asia  Minor. 

Hesiod.  A  didactic  Greek  poet  who  lived  in  Boeotia  about 
the  ninth  century  B.C.  His  work  entitled  Works  and  Days 
served  as  a  model  to  Vergil  in  the  composition  of  his  Georgics. 

Himera.     A  city  of  Sicily.     (See  Gelo.) 

Hipparchus.     See  Harmodius. 

Hippias.     See  Harmodius. 

Hippocrates.  An  Athenian  general,  commander  at  the  siege 
of  Delium. 

Histiseus.  Tyrant  of  Miletus.  He  saved  Darius  and  his 
army  from  destruction  at  the  Danube  bridge  during  this 
monarch's  campaign  against  the  Scythians.  Histiaeus  per- 
suaded the  lonians  not  to  destroy  the  bridge.  He  was  badly 
rewarded,  as  Darius,  suspecting  his  loyalty,  took  him  to  Susa 
under  the  pretext  of  not  wishing  to  be  separated  from  such  a 
friend. 

H6mer.  The  reputed  author  of  two  Greek  poems,  the  Iliad 
and  the  Odyssey, 


Iliad.     See  Homer. 

I6nians.  The  lonians  established  colonies  in  Asia  Minor 
and  sided  with  Darius  at  the  passage  of  the  Danube.  This 
was  done  at  the  instigation  of  Histiaeus  (513  b.c).  Incited 
by  Aristagoras,  they  revolted  against  Persia  and  were  subdued 
after  the  siege  of  Miletus.  The  satrap  Artaphernes  reestab- 
lished order.  (See  Lade.)  In  479  b.c,  the  lonians  shook  off 
the  Persian  yoke  after  the  victory  of  the  Greeks  at  Mycale. 


28  GREEK   HISTORY 

India.     See  Darius  and  Alexander. 

I'ndus.     See  Alexander. 

Iphicrates.  An  Athenian  general  during  the  Corinthian  War 
against  Sparta  (391  e.g.).  He  relieved  Corcyra  in  a  siege  by 
the  Spartans  (373-372  e.g.).  The  Ecclesia  gave  him  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  after  the  alliance  between  Athens  and  Sparta 
against  Thebes  (370  e.g.).  He  fell  into  disgrace  during  the 
Social  War  (355  e.g.). 

Isagoras.     See  Cleomenes. 

I'ssus.  A  town  near  the  Eiver  Pinarus,  where  Alexander 
defeated  Darius  III.  (333  e.g.). 

Ithome,  Mount.  The  strongest  citadel  of  the  Messenians. 
Here  Aristodemus  fought  against  the  Spartans  (668  e.g.).  In 
464  E.G.,  the  revolted  Helots  entrenched  themselves  on  Ithome, 
and  held  the  Spartans  in  check  for  ten  years.  On  its  slope 
Epaminondas  founded  Messene  in  370  e.g. 

J 

Jason,  of  Pherae.  Ruler  of  Thessaly.  He  promised  to  help 
the  Thebans  at  Leuctra,  but  failed  to  do  so.  He  declared  his 
intention  of  going  to  Delphi  to  offer  sacrifices  for  the  unity  of 
Thessaly,  but  as  he  had  determined  to  go  there  with  an  army, 
the  states  of  central  Greece  were  much  alarmed.  He  was 
murdered  before  accomplishing  his  plan  (370  e.g.). 


Lacedaemon.  The  ancient  name  for  the  plain  in  which  Sparta 
was  situated.  The  name  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  the 
whole  of  Laconia. 

Lac6nia.  A  province  of  southern  Greece,  the  principal  city  of 
which  was  Sparta.  During  the  Peloponnesian  War  its  shores 
were  ravaged  by  the  Athenians.  At  the  time  of  the  ascen- 
dency of  Thebes,  Epaminondas  invaded  Laconia  (362  e.g.). 

Lade.  An  island  opposite  Miletus  (Ionia)  where  the  con- 
federate Lesbians,  Samians,  and  Chians,  led  by  a  certain  Diony- 


GREEK  HISTORY  29 

sius,  were  defeated  by  Artaphernes,  satrap  of  Darius,  494  b.c. 
(See  Artaphernes  and  Aristagoras.) 

Lamachus.  The  colleague  of  Alcibiades  and  Nicias  in  the 
Sicilian  expedition  (415  b.c). 

Lamian  War.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  several  of  the 
Grecian  states,  prompted  by  Demosthenes,  rose  against  the 
Macedonian  general  Antipater.  They  were  repulsed  at  Lamia 
in  Thessaly.  Demosthenes  took  refuge  in  a  temple  near 
Troezen.     Being  pursued,  he  poisoned  himself  (322  b.c). 

Leonidas.  Commander  of  the  Spartans  at  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae; betrayed  by  Ephialtes,  and  defeated  by  Xerxes, 
480  B.C. 

Leontiades.  A  Theban  who  admitted  into  the  Cadmeia  the 
Spartan  general  Phoebidas  and  his  troops  (382  b.c).  Leontiades 
took  advantage  of  the  panic  to  overthrow  his  political  rivals 
and  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  government,  but  soon 
after  he  was  slain  (379  b.c).     (See  Pelopidas.) 

Leontini.  A  Greek  colony  near  Syracuse.  It  was  aided  by 
the  Athenians  during  their  difficulties  with  Syracuse  at  the 
time  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  According  to  Thucydides 
the  inhabitants  were  finally  expelled  from  their  territory  by 
the  Syracusans. 

Leotychides.  King  of  Sparta.  He  succeeded  Demaratus  as 
colleague  of  Cleomenes.  He  won  the  naval  battle  of  Mycalae 
against  the  Persians  (479  b.c). 

Leiictra.  A  town  of  Boeotia  where  Epaminondas,  Pelopidas, 
and  the  Sacred  Band  (300  chosen  hoplites)  won  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  Spartans  and  King  Cleombrotus  (371  b.c). 

Lilybaeum.     See  Drepana. 

Long  Walls.  The  walls  connecting  Athens  with  the  Piraeus, 
forming  a  fortified  gallery  (458  b.c).  They  were  torn  down 
by  the  Peloponnesian  confederates  at  the  end  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian War  (404  b.c),  and  rebuilt  under  Conon  (393  b.c). 

Lycomedes.     See  Tearless  Battle. 

Lyciirgus.  A  Spartan  legislator  who  lived  about  800  b.c 
He  has  been  considered  by  some  authors  as  mythical,  but  the 

HAND.  GK.  &  ROM.  HIST.  —  3 


30  GREEK  HISTORY 

Rhetra  or  code  of  laws  of  Sparta  is  attributed  to  him.  This 
legislation  aimed  at  making  Lacedaemon  a  military  country 
always  on  war  footing.  The  lands  had  been  divided  in  equal 
parts,  the  owners  were  forbidden  to  increase  or  diminish  their 
real  estate,  the  gold  and  silver  coins  were  replaced  by  iron 
coins,  the  meals,  which  were  very  frugal,  were  eaten  in  com- 
mon at  prescribed  hours.  Military  and  athletic  exercises  were 
compulsory.  The  government  was  entrusted  to  two  kings,  who 
presided  in  the  Senate,  performed  the  religious  ceremonies, 
made  laws,  and  commanded  the  armies.  The  Senate  had 
twenty-eight  members ;  it  chose  the  officials,  regulated  taxes, 
and  passed  or  rejected  the  laws. 

Lydia.  A  district  in  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor,  gov- 
erned by  Croesus.     It  was  subjugated  by  Cyrus. 

Lysander.  A  Spartan  general.  He  secured  the  financial 
help  of  Cyrus,  brother  of  Artaxerxes,  defeated  the  Athenians 
at  Notium  (407  b.c),  and  won  the  battle  of  Aegospotami  against 
Conon  (405  b.c).  He  took  Athens,  and  destroyed  the  Long 
Walls ;  his  power  excited  uneasiness  at  Sparta,  and  he  was 
kept  without  public  employment  for  a  time.  He  was  killed  at 
Haliartus  (385  b.c). 

Lysimachus.  One  of  Alexander's  best  generals.  After  the 
conqueror's  death  he  was  given  Thrace  for  his  share  of  terri- 
tory ;  added  Bithynia  to  his  possessions ;  undertook  a  cam- 
paign against  Seleucus  and  was  killed  at  Cyropedion  (282  b.c). 

M    ' 

Maced6nia.  A  kingdom  north  of  ancient  Greece.  It  sub- 
mitted to  Darius  about  513  b.c  It  became  very  important 
under  the  government  of  Philip  II. 

Magnesia.  A  city  of  Asia  Minor.  Its  government  was 
entrusted  to  Themistocles  while  he  was  at  the  court  of 
Artaxerxes. 

Magna  Grsecia.  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  so  called  fiom 
the  numerous  Greek  settlements.  They  were  nearly  all  con- 
quered by  Dionysius. 


GREEK  HISTORY  31 

Mantin^a.  A  town  of  Arcadia.  In  418  b.c,  Agis  II.,  king 
of  Sparta,  practically  won  a  battle  at  this  place  against  the 
Athenians  and  their  allies.  (See  Agis  II.)  Here  Epaminon- 
das,  leading  the  Thebans,  won  a  great  victory  over  the  Spartans 
and  Mantineans,  but  lost  his  life  (362  b.c). 

Marathon.  A  village  of  Attica  near  Mount  Pentelicus  and 
on  the  bay  of  the  same  name.  In  490  b.c,  Miltiades  and  Cal- 
limachus,  leading  the  Athenians,  and  aided  by  the  Plataeans, 
defeated  the  army  of  Darius  I.  led  by  Artaphernes  the  younger. 

Mard6nius.  A  general  of  Xerxes.  He  was  sent  against 
Athens  in  492  b.c,  but  his  fleet  was  destroyed  by  a  storm 
off  Mount  Atlios.  After  the  battle  of  Salamis  (480)  he  was 
left  with  300,000  men  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Greece. 
He  met  the  Greeks,  commanded  by  Pausanias  and  Aristeides, 
at  Plataea  in  Boeotia,  where  his  army  was  defeated  and  he  was 
killed  (479  b.c). 

Maus61us.  King  of  Caria,  whose  tomb,  the  famous  Mauso- 
leum of  Halicarnassus,  was  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
World  (352  B.C.). 

Medes.  A  body  of  Aryan  tribes  related  to  the  Persians. 
Their  empire,  founded  by  Cyaxares,  was  conquered  by  Cyrus, 
king  of  Elam.  The  Persian  Empire  so  founded  was  generally 
called  Median  by  the  Greeks. 

Megabazus.  A  general  of  Darius  whom  the  latter  left  in 
charge  of  part  of  the  troops  after  crossing  the  Danube. 

Megalopolis.  An  important  city  of  Arcadia,  founded,  by 
Epaminondas  (370  b.c).  His  object  was  to  have  a  stronghold 
against  Sparta. 

Megara.  The  capital  of  Megaris,  between  Athens  and  Cor- 
inth. It  was  invaded  in  a  war  with  Athens  for  the  possession 
of  Salamis  (see  Myronides) ;  Sparta  arbitrated  in  favor  of 
Athens  (see  Solon).  Megara  was  lost  to  Athens  under  Pericles, 
and  joined  the  Spartans.  Megarians  were  excluded  from  all 
Attic  ports  and  markets. 

Megaris.  A  small  Grecian  state  east  of  the  Isthmus  of  Cor- 
inth.    It  was  invaded  by  Mardonius,  the  general  of  Xerxes. 


32  GREEK  HISTORY 

M^los.  One  of  the  Cyclades  islands,  ravaged  by  Nicias  and 
the  Athenians  during  the  Peloponnesian  War.  After  the  peace 
of  Nicias  the  island  was  again  attacked  and  fell  a  victim  to  the 
greed  of  the  Athenians  (416  b.c).  After  the  fall  of  Athens, 
the  Melians  were  restored  to  the  old  homes  (404  b.c). 

Messene.  The  Messenians,  who,  for  a  long  time,  had  strug- 
gled to  free  themselves  from  the  Laconian  yoke,  were  finally 
enabled  to  obtain  their  liberty  through  the  aid  of  Epaminon- 
das,  who  built  the  city  and  citadel  of  Messene  on  the  slopes  of 
Mount  Ithome ;  after  300  years,  Messenia  was  at  last  separated 
from  Sparta  (370  b.c). 

Mess^nian  Wars.  Messenia  was  a  region  west  of  Laconia. 
Its  population  was  composed  of  Dorians,  Achaians,  etc.  The 
first  war  lasted  from  743  to  723  b.c  The  Spartans  crossed 
Mount  Taygetus,  seized  the  fortress  of  Amphea,  and  ravaged 
the  country.  The  Messenians  assembled  all  their  forces  at 
Mount  Ithome,  the  strongest  citadel,  but  in  spite  of  the  sac- 
rifice of  Aristodemus  (see  Aristodemus)  the  citadel  fell.  The 
Messenians  became  Perioeci.  (See  Perioeci.)  The  second  war 
was  caused  by  a  revolt  of  the  Messenians  under  Aristomenes 
against  the  Spartans  (about  660  b.c).  They  had  for  allies 
the  Arcadians  led  by  Aristocrates  and  the  Argives  under 
Pheidon.  Aristocrates  abandoned  his  allies.  Pheidon  was 
killed  in  battle,  and  although  the  Spartans  sustained  a  few 
defeats,  they  finally  overpowered  Aristomenes,  who  escaped 
to  Rhodes,  where  he  died.  The  Messenians  were  made  Helots 
(645  B.C.).  The  third  war  in  464  b.c  is  known  as  .the  uprising 
of  the  Helots.     (See  Helots.) 

Mid^a.     See  Tearless  Battle. 

Miletus.  An  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Ionian  colonies.  It  was  situated  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Caria.  (See  Artaphernes,  Aristagoras.)  At  the 
instigation  of  Alcibiades,  Miletus  revolted  against  Athens 
(412  B.C.). 

Miltiades.  An  Athenian  general,  who  won  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon against  Artaphernes  the  younger,  satrap  of  Darius  of  Per- 


GREEK   HISTORY  33 

sia  (490  B.C.).  Miltiades  prevented  the  return  of  the  tyrant 
Hippias,  as  he  discovered  the  signals  made  by  his  accomplices 
in  Athens.  The  next  year,  wishing  to  avenge  a  private  grudge 
on  the  island  of  Paros,  Miltiades  obtained  a  large  fleet,  but 
was  defeated.  He  was  disgraced,  tried  before  the  Heliaea,  and 
fined  50  talents.  He  died  from  the  effects  of  an  accidental 
wound  (489  b.c).     His  son  Cimon  paid  his  fine. 

Mindarus.  The  Spartan  general  of  the  Peloponnesian  fleet, 
defeated  at  Abydos  by  the  Athenians  in  411  b.c,  and  at  Cyzi- 
cus  by  the  Athenians  under  Alcibiades  in  410  b.c. 

Mycale.  A  promontory  not  far  from  Miletus,  where  the  Spar- 
tan king,  Leotychides,  and  the  Athenian  general,  Xanthippus, 
defeated  the  army  and  navy  of  Xerxes  (479  b.c). 

Myronides.  An  Athenian  general.  He  fought  two  success- 
ful battles  at  Megara,  against  the  Corinthians  (458  b.c),  and 
conquered  Boeotia  (456  b.c). 

Mytilene.  The  ancient  capital  of  Lesbos.  It  was  conquered 
by  the  Persians  under  Cyrus,  and  revolted  against  Darius  at  the 
time  of  the  Ionian  insurrection.  (See  Aristagoras.)  It  was  com- 
pelled to  furnish  ships  to  Darius  and  Xerxes  against  Greece. 
After  Plataea  and  Mycale,  Lesbos  was  again  free  and  became 
an  ally  of  Athens,  but  finding  itself  oppressed,  turned  to  the 
Spartan  cause  at  the  opening  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  but 
was  soon  conquered  again,  and  the  capital,  Mytilene,  razed 
to  the  ground.  (See  Cleon.)  After  the  battle  of  Aegospotami, 
Lesbos  returned  to  Sparta,  and  finally  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  Alexander. 


Naxos.  One  of  the  Cyclades.  It  attempted  to  secede  from 
the  Delian  league  (Confederacy  of  Delos),  but  the  Athenians 
under  Chabrias  defeated  the  Naxians,  who  paid  an  increased 
tribute  (466  b.c). 

Nearchus.  An  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  charged 
with  the  exploration  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  as  Alexander  wished 
to  open  a  sea  route  between  India  and  Babylon. 


34  GREEK   HISTORY 

Nicias.  The  political  enemy  of  Cleon  at  Athens.  He  con- 
cluded the  peace  which  bears  his  name,  thus  ending  the  first 
Peloponnesian  War.  He  was  sent  with  Demosthenes  against 
Gylippus  at  Syracuse,  and  was  defeated  and  put  to  death 
(413  B.C.). 

N6tium.  Opposite  Ephesus  in  Asia  Minor.  There,  in  407 
B.C.,  Antiochus,  the  Athenian  admiral,  whom  Alcibiades  had 
entrusted  with  the  fleet,  was  completely  defeated  and  slain 
by  the  Spartans  under  Lysander. 


Odyssey.     See  Homer. 

Olympia.  A  city  of  Peloponnesus  on  the  banks  of  the 
Alpheus,  where  the  Greeks  celebrated  the  games  in  honor  of 
Olympian  Zeus,  the  national  deity. 

Olympias.  Mother  of  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  Philip 
repudiated  in  order  to  marry  Cleopatra,  the  niece  of  his  gen- 
eral. Attains. 

Olympus.  The  highest  mountain  of  Greece,  situated  in 
Thessaly. 

Olynthian  Confederacy.  This  was  a  union  of  Macedonian 
and  Grecian  towns  in  Chalcidice.  Two  cities.  Acanthus  and 
Apollonia,  refused  to  join,  and  advised  Sparta  of  the  state  of 
things.  The  Spartans  dispatched  a  fleet  to  the  Chalcidian 
shore,  and  the  league  was  broken  up  (379  b.c).  Artabazus, 
general  of  Xerxes,  destroyed  Olynthus,  the  principal  city  of 
that  region,  because  it  had  cast  off  its  allegiance  to  the  Per- 
sians. Philip  of  Macedon  conquered  it  with  the  entire  Chal- 
cidian Confederacy  (348  b.c). 

Onomarchus.  Leader  of  the  Phocians.  (See  Sacred  War.) 
He  fought  against  Philip  of  Macedon  and  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Pagasae  on  the  Magnesian  Peninsula  (352  b.c). 

Ortygia.     See  Dionysius  II. 

Os'tracism.  A  form  of  banishment  established  by  Cleis- 
thenes.     If  any  political  crisis  arose,  the  people  were  assem- 


GREEK  HISTORY  35 

bled  and  could  declare  by  their  vote  that  the  presence  of  any 
individual  in  Athens  was  prejudicial  to  the  state.  If  6000 
votes  were  cast  against  any  one,  he  went  into  exile  for  ten 
years. 

P 

Pagasae.  A  town  of  Thessaly,  on  the  coast  of  Magnesia. 
(See  Onomarchus.) 

Pamphylia.     See  Cimon. 

Panathenaea.  An  annual  festival  in  honor  of  Athena.  In  a 
more  splendid  form,  established  by  Peisistratus,  it  was  cele- 
brated every  fourth  year,  and  called  the  Great  Panathenaea, 
while  the  older  festival  was  still  kept  up  under  the  name  of 
Less  Panathenaea. 

Parmenio.  A  favorite  general  of  Alexander,  who  distin- 
guished himself  at  Issus  and  at  Arbela.  His  son  Philotas 
was  a  man  of  outspoken  disposition,  and  became  obnoxious  to 
Alexander,  who  accused  him  of  conspiring  against  him.  He 
was  tortured,  and  though  innocent  confessed  his  guilt  as  con- 
spirator, implicating  his  father,  who  was  also  blameless.  They 
were  both  executed. 

Parnassus.  The  most  central  peak  in  Greece.  In  one  of  its 
recesses  lay  the  site  of  the  oracle  of  Delphi. 

Parnes.     A  mountain  near  Athens. 

Paros.     An  island  in  the  Aegean.     (See  Miltiades.) 

Parthenon.  The  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  temples 
of  the  Acropolis,  built  at  the  time  of  Pericles. 

1.  Pausanias.  Eegent  of  Sparta.  With  the  Athenians  he  won 
the  battle  of  Plataea  against  the  army  of  Xerxes  led  by  Mar- 
donius  and  Artabazus.  In  479  b.c.  he  marched  against  Thebes. 
The  next  year  he  offered  Xerxes  to  subdue  all  Greece  if  he 
gave  him  the  means  and  his  daughter  in  marriage.  Xerxes 
consented,  but  Pausanias'  plans  were  discovered  and  he  was 
recalled  by  the  Ephors.  The  fleet  refused  to  be  commanded 
by  him  and  placed  itself  at  the  disposition  of  Aristeides  and 
CimoU;  the  Athenian  leaders.     Pausanias  was  deprived  of  his 


36  GREEK  HISTORY 

power  and  summoned  to  appear  for  trial,  but  was  acquitted, 
although  no  command  was  ever  entrusted  to  him.  He  went  to 
Xerxes'  court,  intrigued  there,  and  was  summoned  to  a  second 
trial,  but  no  accuser  appeared  against  him.  Pausanias  con- 
tinued his  intrigues  until  he  was  detected  through  a  message 
he  had  sent  to  the  satrap  Artabazus.  He  took  refuge  in  the 
temple  of  Athena ;  the  Ephors  ordered  the  doors  to  be  closed 
and  left  him  to  die  from  hunger  (469  B.C.). 

2.  Pausanias.  King  of  Sparta  (408-394  b.c).  He  put  an  end 
to  the  oligarchy  which  reigned  at  Athens  during  the  admin- 
istration of  the  thirty  tyrants.  Pausanias  was  the  cause  of 
Lysander's  defeat  and  death  at  Haliartus  (395  b.c),  as  he 
arrived  too  late  with  his  reenforcements.  He  was  impeached 
on  his  return  and  fled  from  trial. 

3.  Pausanias.     The  murderer  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Peirseus  (Piraeus).     The  port  of  Athens,  which  replaced  the 

older  harbor  of  Phalerum.  Its  long  walls  were  destroyed  by 
Lysander  and  rebuilt  by  Conon. 

Peisander  (Pisander).  An  Athenian  politician.  He  was 
sent  at  the  head  of  a  commission  to  interview  Alcibiades  at 
the  court  of  the  satrap  Tissaphernes,  and  obtain  the  latter's 
support  against  Sparta.  The  mission  failed  (411  b.c).  Pisander 
established  the  government  of  the  400.  (See  Four  Hundred.) 
Was  exiled  and  took  refuge  at  Sparta. 

Peisistratus  (Pisistratus).  During  Solon's  absence  his  con- 
stitution dissatisfied  many  Athenians ;  Peisistratus  placed  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  party  of  the  "  Upland "  and  declared 
himself  tyrant  of  Athens.  He  was  a  moderate  and  able 
ruler.  The  "Shore"  and  the  "Plain"  led  by  Megacles  and 
Lycurgus  dethroned  Peisistratus,  but  the  two  leaders  disa- 
greeing, Megacles  reinstated  Peisistratus  and  governed  with 
him.  They  disagreed,  however,  and  for  the  second  time  Peisis- 
tratus was  deposed  and  expelled.  He  retired  to  Thrace,  gath- 
ered an  army  and  marched  against  Athens.  He  defeated  his 
opponents  at  Marathon  (535  b.c),  and  was  tyrant  once  more. 
He  conducted  carefully  home  and  foreign  affairs ;  kept  Solon's 


GREEK  HISTORY  37 

laws ;  protected  literary  men ;  and  died  527  B.C.,  leaving  two 
sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus. 

Pelasgians.     One  of  the  first  tribes  of  Greece. 

Pelopidas.  A  rich  Theban  of  noble  family,  the  friend  of 
Epaminondas.  He  freed  Thebes  from  the  Polemarchs  and 
killed  Leontiades.  He  commanded  the  sacred  band  at  Leuctra. 
He  conquered  Thessaly;  was  imprisoned  by  Alexander  of 
Pherae,  and  released  by  Epaminondas.  In  368  b.c,  he  was 
killed  in  an  expedition  against  the  same  Alexander. 

Peloponnesian  War.  Properly  a  breaking  of  the  thirty  years' 
truce  arranged  by  Pericles  and  Callias  between  Athens  and 
Sparta.  It  is  practically  a  long  conflict  (431-404  B.C.)  between 
Sparta  and  its  allies  and  Athens  and  its  adherents.  The  prin- 
cipal generals  who  figured  in  it  on  the  Athenian  side  are 
Pericles,  Demosthenes  (general),  Eurymedon,  Nicias,  Conon, 
Alcibiades,  Thrasybulus,  and  Thrasyllus.  On  the  Spartan  side 
were  Brasidas,  Archidamus,  Lysander,  Callicratidas,  Gylippus. 
The  principal  battles  were  fought  at  Plataea  (427  b.c.)  ;  Pylos 
(425  B.C.) ;  Amphipolis  (422  b.c.)  ;  Mantinea  (418  B.C.) ;  Si- 
cilian expedition  ended  (413  b.c.)  ;  Eretria  (411  b.c.)  ;  Cyzicus 
(410  B.C.) ;  Notium  (407  B.C.) ;  Arginusae  (406  b.c.)  ;  Aegos- 
potami  (405  b.c).  This  long  conflict  ended  with  the  downfall 
of  Athens  and  brought  about  the  supremacy  of  Sparta. 

Perdiccas.  King  of  Macedon.  He  sided  with  the  Potidaeans 
against  Athens  at  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
Brasidas,  the  Spartan  general,  helped  him  against  his  enemies 
to  the  disadvantage  of  Sparta.  Perdiccas  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Philip  (359  b.c). 

Periander.     A  celebrated  tyrant  of  Corinth. 

1.  Pericles.  The  greatest  statesman  of  Athens.  His  chief 
rival  was  Cimon.  After  the  ostracism  of  the  latter,  Pericles 
became  sole  ruler  of  Athens.  He  allowed  Cimon  to  return 
after  Tanagra.  He  made  the  thirty  years'  truce  with  Sparta ; 
remodeled  the  dicasteries ;  increased  the  colonies ;  strengthened 
the  navy;  rebuilt  the  temples;  built  the  Parthenon  and  Pro- 
pylaea,  and  adorned  Athens  with  public  buildings.     He  was 


38  GREEK   HISTORY 

also  distinguished  as  a  general.  He  recovered  Euboea  (445), 
subdued  the  revolted  Samians  (440),  and  was  prominent  in  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  which  he  had  advocated.  He  fell  into 
temporary  disfavor  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  but  was  soon 
restored.     He  died  during  the  plague  at  Athens  (429  B.C.). 

2.  Pericles.  Son  of  the  statesman  Pericles.  He  was  exe- 
cuted after  the  battle  of  Arginusae  for  having  failed  to  rescue 
some  Athenian  vessels  caught  in  a  gale.  Thrasyllus  and  Aris- 
tocrates  shared  his  fate  (406  B.C.). 

Perioeci.  The  conquered  inhabitants  who  dwelt  around  the 
community  of  Sparta.  They  paid  tribute  and  furnished 
troops. 

Pers^polis.  A  great  city  of  Persia,  capital  of  the  empire. 
It  was  taken  and  burned  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  330  b.c. 

Persian  Empire.     See  Croesus,  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Darius. 

Phalerum.     The  old  port  of  Athens,  replaced  by  the  Piraeus. 

Pharnabazus.  Satrap  of  northern  Asia  Minor.  He  helped 
the  Lacedaemonians  against  the  Athenians  in  the  battles  on 
the  Hellespont.  He  was  expelled  from  his  lands  by  King 
Agesilaus  of  Sparta.  He  joined  Conon's  fleet  and  defeated 
Pisander,  brother-in-law  of  King  Agesilaus,  and  the  Spartans 
at  Cnidus  (394  b.c). 

Pheidias  (Phidias).  The  most  famous  Greek  sculptor,  born 
at  Athens  about  488  b.c.  He  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
works  of  art  with  which  Pericles  beautified  Athens.  His 
most  famous  works  are  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  the 
gold  and  silver  statue  of  Athene,  and  the  celebrated  colossal 
statue  of  Zeus  at  Olympia. 

Pheidon.  An  early  king  of  Argos.  He  is  said  to  have 
inaugurated  the  coining  of  money  and  the  establishment  of 
weights  and  measures.  He  helped  the  Messenians  against  the 
Spartans  in  the  Second  Messenian  War  (660  b.c). 

Philip  II.  of  Macedon  (382-336  b.c).  Third  son  of  Amyntas. 
He  was  brought  up  at  Thebes,  where  he  had  been  taken  as  a 
hostage  by  Pelopidas,  and  where  he  gained  the  idea  of  the 
famous  Macedonian  Phalanx.     He  was  not  the  real  heir  to  the 


GREEK   HISTORY  89 

throne,  but  acted  at  first  as  regent  for  the  orphan  son  of  Per- 
diccas,  his  second  brother.  He  managed  to  set  aside  the 
prince,  and  began  to  reign  himself  in  359  b.c.  He  reformed 
the  army.  He  seized  in  succession  Amphipolis,  Pydna,  and 
Olynthus;  conquered  the  Thracian  tribes,  gained  possession 
of  gold  mines  at  Mount  Pangaeus,  and  built  Philippi.  He 
took  part  in  the  Sacred  War;  was  repulsed  during  his  cam- 
paign in  Thessaly  by  the  Phocians  under  Onomarchus ;  but  a 
few  months  later,  in  352  B.C.,  Philip  defeated  and  slew  Ono- 
marchus at  Pagasae  and  became  master  of  the  situation  in 
Thessaly.  He  marched  against  the  Hellenic  cities  of  Pro- 
pontis  and  Byzantium,  but  was  several  times  defeated,  and 
Phocion  compelled  him  to  abandon  Byzantium  (339  b.c).  The 
Athenians  and  Thebans  joined  together  to  oppose  Philip's 
invasion  of  Greece,  but  were  conquered  in  the  famous  battle 
of  Chaeronea  (338),  and  all  Greece  was  subjugated  to  Philip's 
authority.  In  338  b.c.  he  convened  the  Congress  of  Corinth. 
(See  Corinth.)  Philip  divorced  Olympias  and  married  Cleopa- 
tra. He  was  murdered  by  Pausanias  during  a  festival  at  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  (336  b.c). 

Philippics.     See  2.  Demosthenes. 

Philomelas.     A  Phocian  leader  in  the  Sacred  War. 

Philopoemen.     See  Achaean  League. 

Philotas.     See  Parmenio. 

Ph6cion.  An  Athenian  statesman  who  opposed  Demosthenes 
in  regard  to  the  war  with  Philip.  He  forced  Philip  to  aban- 
don the  siege  of  Byzantium  (339  b.c). 

Phdebidas.     See  Cadmeia. 

Plain.  There  were  three  local  divisions,  or  factions,  in 
Attica,  known  as  the  Plain,  the  Shore,  and  the  Upland.  The 
Plain  denoted  the  rich  landowners  who  occupied  the  fertile 
plains  of  Attica ;  the  Shore,  the  commercial  or  middle  class ; 
the  Upland,  the  poorest  class,  the  shepherds  of  the  hills. 

Plataea.  An  ancient  city  of  Boeotia  on  the  Asopus.  It  left 
the  Boeotian  League  on  account  of  trouble  with  Thebes,  and 
placed  itself  under  the  protection  of  Athens  (519  b.c).     The 


40  GREEK  HISTORY 

Plataeans  fought  with  the  Athenians  at  Marathon  against  the 
Persians  (490  b.c).  The  town  resisted  the  invasion  of  Xerxes- 
in  Boeotia,  and  was  destroyed  by  the  Persian  army.  At 
Plataea  was  fought  the  great  battle  between  Xerxes'  army,  led 
by  Mardonius  and  Artabazus,  and  the  Spartans  and  Athenians 
led  by  Pausanias  and  Aristeides.  Mardonius  was  defeated  and 
killed,  and  the  independence  of  Greece  was  secured  (479  b.c). 
Plataea  was  attacked  by  the  Spartans  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Thebans  at  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  and  was 
taken  after  a  siege  of  two  years  in  428  b.c.  It  was  razed  to 
the  ground,  but  was  rebuilt  after  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas 
(387  B.C.).  It  was  destroyed  the  third  time  by  the  Thebans  in 
374  B.C.,  and  its  inhabitants  were  exiled. 

Pldto.  A  celebrated  Greek  philosopher,  disciple  of  Socrates 
(427-347  B.C.). 

P61emarch.  The  military  leader  of  the  Athenian  forces. 
This  name  was  given  to  the  third  archon. 

P6rus.     An  Indian  monarch  defeated  by  Alexander. 

Potidaea.  An  important  town  of  Chalcidice,  founded  by 
Corinth.  (See  Artabazus.)  It  had  become  a  member  of  the 
Athenian  League,  but  revolted  from  Athens  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Its  forces  and  the  allied  Pelopon- 
nesians  were  defeated  near  the  city  in  432  b.c.  (See  Perdiccas 
and  Aristeus.)  It  surrendered  to  Athens  under  Pericles,  and 
was  finally  captured  by  Philip  of  Macedon  (358  b.c),  who  gave 
the  city  to  the  Olynthians. 

Propylaea.  The  entrance  halls  of  the  citadel  of  Athens, 
built  by  Pericles. 

Pt6lemy.  A  general  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom  Egypt 
was  given  at  the  division  of  Alexander's  Empire.  His  descend- 
ants ruled  in  Egypt  for  nearly  three  centuries. 

Pydna.  A  city  of  Macedonia,  originally  a  Greek  colony  on 
the  Thermaic  Gulf,  taken  by  Philip  II.  (358  b.c).      ' 

Pylos.     See  Demosthenes  and  Eurymedon. 

Pythagoras.  A  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Samos  about 
582  B.c 


GREEK  HISTORY  41 


Rhetra.     The  laws  and  institutions  of  Lycurgus  of  Sparta. 

Rhodes.  An  island  southwest  of  Asia  Minor,  settled  by 
Dorians.  Its  chief  city,  Rhodes,  sustained  a  siege  in  305  b.c, 
but  was  not  taken.  Rhodes  was  the  ally  of  Rome  in  her  wars 
against  Philip  V.  and  Antiochus.  Her  importance  vanished 
when  the  Romans  made  Delos  the  commercial  port  of  the 
Aegean. 

Roxana.  Daughter  of  a  Bactrian  nobleman.  One  of  the 
wives  of  Alexander  the  Great. 


Sacred  Band.     See  Chaeronea. 

Sacred  War.  The  first  war  took  place  about  595  b.c.  The 
Phocians  molested  the  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  Apollo.  Solon 
was  instrumental  in  the  suppression  of  this  religious  outrage. 
The  second  began  in  356  e.g.  with  a  quarrel  between  Thebes 
and  Phocis,  who  had  long  been  secret  enemies.  The  Thebans 
accused  the  Phocians  of  sacrilege  in  having  plowed  land 
sacred  to  Apollo.  The  Amphyctionic  Council  condemned  the 
Phocians  to  pay  a  fine,  and,  in  case  of  refusal,  their  lands  were 
to  be  seized.  The  Phocians  knew  that  the  Delphians  were 
their  accusers.  Led  by  Philomelus  they  seized  Delphi  and 
the  temple.  This  brought  war  Avith  Thebes  and  Thessaly,  but 
the  Phocians,  having  the  rich  treasures  of  Delphi,  were  able  to 
secure  mercenary  troops.  Thus  began  the  Second  Sacred  War, 
merely  a  war  of  jealousy  between  Phocis  and  the  Thebans 
allied  to  the  Thessalians.  Philomelus  was  killed,  but  his  suc- 
cessor, Onomarchus,  was  very  successful.  The  enemies  of 
Phocis  implored  the  aid  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  Onomarchus 
defeated  him  twice  at  Pherae ;  but  a  little  later  Philip  defeated 
and  killed  Onomarchus  at  Pagasae,  thus  becoming  master  of 
Thessaly  (352  e.g.).  This  alarmed  the  Greek  states  which  did 
not  belong  to  the  Theban  alliance,  and  they  opposed  and  re- 
pulsed Philip  at  Thermopylae  (352  e.g.).     The  Second  Sacred 


42  GREEK   HISTORY 

War  continued  until  346  b.c,  and  ended  with  the  submission 
of  Phocis  to  Philip.    The  third  ended  at  Chaeronea  (338  b.c). 

Salamis.  An  island  of  the  Aegean  Sea  opposite  Athens, 
taken  by  the  Megarians  (610  b.c).  The  island  was  later  re- 
gained by  Athenians  led  by  Solon.  Salamis  was  the  scene  of 
the  defeat  of  Xerxes'  fleet  (480  b.c). 

Samos.  An  island  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  set- 
tled by  lonians,  at  one  time  governed  by  the  tyrant  Polycrates. 
It  was  ravaged  by  the  army  of  Darius  about  513  b.c  It  re- 
volted against  Athens  (440  b.c),  but  was  subdued  by  Pericles. 
The  Athenians  granted  independence  to  Samos  on  account  of 
its  loyalty  at  the  time  of  the  Conspiracy  of  the  Four  Hundred 

(411  B.C.). 

Sardis.     See  Croesus,  Aristagoras,  Artaphernes. 

Scythians.  An  Asiatic  people,  inhabitants  of  the  steppes  of 
southern  Russia.     They  were  defeated  by  Darius  in  513  b.c 

Sedition  Law.     See  Solon. 

Seleiicidae.  A  dynasty  of  kings  who  reigned  over  Asia 
Minor  and  Syria.  The  founder  was  Seleucus  Nicator,  its  prin- 
cipal members  being  the  branch  of  Antiochus  (312-65  b.c). 
This  empire  became  a  Roman  province  under  Pompey. 

Selinus.     See  Sicilian  War. 

Shore.     See  Plain. 

Sicilian  War  (415-413  b.c).  A  dispute  having  arisen  be- 
tween the  towns  of  Selinus  and  Segesta  in  Sicily,  the  Selinu- 
tians  sought  help  from  Syracuse,  and  the  Segestans  asked  and 
received  aid  from  Athens,  who  knew  that  the  Spartans  would 
help  Syracuse.  A  fleet  was  fitted  out  and  commanded  by 
Nicias,  Alcibiades,  and  Lamachus.  Nicias  was  not  in  favor  of 
the  war,  but  his  arguments  were  of  no  avail.  Just  before  the 
fleet  left,  the  mutilation  of  the  Hermae  was  discovered,  and 
Alcibiades  was  accused  of  the  outrage,  and  also  of  having  pro- 
faned the  Eleusinian  Mysteries.  However,  Alcibiades  was 
allowed  'to  sail  with  the  fleet.  His  plan  was  to  attack  quickly, 
but  Nicias  opposed  this.  Meanwhile  the  enemies  of  Alci- 
biades at  Athens  pressed  the  charges  against  him,  and  he  was 


GREEK  HISTORY  43 

recalled,  but  escaped  to  Sparta,  and  there  turned  his  ability 
against  Athens.  Nicias  and  Lamachus  being  left  alone,  ordered 
the  attack  as  they  chose,  and  began  the  siege  of  Syracuse  with 
success.  But  the  Syracusans  received  aid  from  the  Corin- 
thians, who  sent  Gylippus  with  a  fleet.  Disasters  commenced 
for  the  Athenians.  Demosthenes  was  sent  from  Athens  to 
assist  them ;  but  in  spite  of  their  desperate  valor,  they  were 
defeated  and  made  prisoners.  Demosthenes  and  Nicias  were 
executed  by  order  of  Gylippus  (413  e.g.). 

Sicily.  An  island  south  of  Italy.  As  early  as  734  e.g.  the 
Greeks  established  colonies  there,  —  Syracuse,  Agrigentum, 
Naxos,  etc.     (See  Sicilian  War,  Dionysius  I.  and  II.,  and  Gelo.) 

Smerdis.     See  Cambyses. 

Social  War.  The  allies  of  Athens,  such  as  Ehodes,  Chios, 
and  Byzantium,  became  dissatisfied  with  her  dominion,  and 
revolted  when  Philip  of  Macedon  invaded  the  country.  Athens 
had  to  give  her  attention  to  her  revolted  allies,  and  could  not 
take  active  part  in  repulsing  Philip.  So  the  Athenians  were 
compelled  to  accept  the  terms  of  their  allies,  and  declared 
them  free  (357-355  e.g.). 

S6crates.  The  celebrated  Athenian  philosopher.  After  the 
battle  of  Arginusae  (406  e.g.)  he  protested,  without  effect, 
against  the  condemnation  of  the  generals,  among  whom  was 
Pericles,  the  son  of  the  great  Pericles.  He  was  accused  of  not 
believing  in  the  Athenian  gods  and  was  condemned  to  die  by 
poison  (399  e.g.). 

S61on.  The  famous  orator  and  lawgiver  of  Athens.  He  led 
the  Athenians  in  the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  Salamis, 
and  brought  about  the  arbitration  of  Sparta,  thus  ending  the 
Megarian  War.  He  was  elected  Archon  in  594  e.g.  ;  gave 
Athens  a  new  constitution,  principally  for  the  relief  of  poor 
debtors ;  changed  the  coinage  of  Athens,  making  it  interchange- 
able with  that  of  her  neighbors ;  divided  the  people  into  four 
classes  for  political  purposes ;  organized  the  Boule,  the  Eccle- 
sia,  and  made  the  Sedition  Law,  depriving  of  citizenship  a  man 
who  refused  to  vote.     He  traveled  to  Cyprus,  Egypt,  and  Asia 


44  GREEK  HISTORY 

Minor.  He  gradually  disappeared  from  public  life  with  the 
rise  of  Pisistratus,  and  died  in  558  b.c. 

1.  S6phocles.  An  Athenian  general  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War.    (See  Eurymedon.) 

2.  S6phocles.    A  celebrated  Greek  tragic  poet  (498-405  b.c). 
Sphacteria.     An  island  in  the  bay  of  Pylos,  opposite  the 

Messenian  coast,  where  the  Spartans  were  blockaded  after 
the  surrender  of  Pylos.  (See  1.  Demosthenes  and  2.  Eury- 
medon.) 

Sparta.  The  principal  city  of  Laconia,  the  rival  of  Athens, 
whose  power  she  destroyed  during  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
In  her  turn  she  lost  her  dominion  through  the  repeated  efforts 
of  the  Thebans  and  Epaminondas. 

Strymon.  A  river  of  Thrace  northeast  of  Chalcidice,  bridged 
by  Xerxes  at  the  beginning  of  his  invasion. 

Siisa.  A  city  of  Persia,  made  the  capital  of  the  empire  of 
Darius ;  taken  by  Alexander  (330  b.c). 

Sybota.  An  island  on  the  coast  of  Epirus.  Corcyra  became 
involved  in  a  quarrel  with  her  mother  city,  Corinth,  and  asked 
aid  of  the  Athenians,  who  sent  a  fleet  to  their  assistance.^  In 
the  indecisive  battle  of  Sybota  (432  b.c)  the  Corinthians  were 
compelled  to  withdraw.  This  conflict  was  one  of  the  causes  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War. 

Syracuse.   A  city  of  Sicily.   (See  Gelo,  Dionysius,  Sicilian  War.) 


Tanfigra.  A  city  of  Boeotia  on  the  Asopus,  where  the  Spar- 
tans defeated  the  Athenians  commanded  by  Pericles  (457  b.c). 

Taygetus.  A  mountain  range  running  north  and  south  in 
Laconia,  the  highest  peak  having  an  altitude  of  8000  feet. 

Tearless  Battle.  A  battle  at  Midea  in  Argolis  between  the 
Spartans  and  Arcadians,  led  by  Lycomedes.  The  Spartans, 
who  were  commanded  by  Archidamus,  son  of  Agesilaus,  de- 
feated the  Arcadians.  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  helped 
the  Spartans  with  a  body  of  Celts.     As  the  Spartans  did  not 


GREEK  HISTORY  45 

lose  a  man,  the  name  of  Tearless  Battle  was  given  to  the  fight 
(368  B.C.). 

Tegea.  An  important  Arcadian  town  on  the  border  of  La- 
conia,  subdued  by  Sparta  in  560  b.c.  The  Tegeans  fought  at 
Plataea  Avith  the  Spartans  and  Athenians  against  Mardonius 
(479  B.C.). 

Ten  Thousand.     See  Xenophon. 

Thales.  The  founder  of  the  Milesian  or  Ionic  school  of 
philosophers  (624-548  b.c). 

Thebes.  Founded  by  Cadmus  in  the  center  of  Boeotia,  the 
seat  of  the  legendary  War  of  the  Seven.  Being  jealous  of 
Athens,  Thebes  refused  to  join  the  confederation  against 
Xerxes.  After  the  battle  of  Plataea  (479  b.c.)  Pausanias 
marched  against  Thebes  to  punish  the  Medizing  party  (the 
party  in  favor  of  the  Persians  or  Medes).  He  had  the  leaders 
removed  to  Corinth  and  executed  (478  b.c).  Phoebidas  took 
the  city  (382  b.c).  It  was  liberated  by  Epaminondas  and  Pelo- 
pidas.    Thebes  was  destroyed  by  Alexander  (336  b.c). 

Themistocles.  An  Athenian,  son  of  Neocles.  He  had  more 
genius  than  his  contemporary  Aristeides,  but  he  did  not  have 
his  virtue.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  quickness  of  intellect, 
worked  for  the  advantage  of  his  country  and  his  own  also,  but 
he  had  no  abnegation  like  the  just  Aristeides.  Politics  were  a 
business  for  him.  He  obtained  the  archonship  (493  b.c)  and 
fortified  the  Piraeus,  the  Athenian  harbor.  He  enlarged  and 
reformed  the  navy;  brought  about  the  Congress  of  Corinth 
(481  B.C.)  in  order  to  take  action  against  the  Persian  invasion; 
commanded  in  Thessaly  during  the  invasion  of  Xerxes.  At  the 
approach  of  Xerxes,  Themistocles  advocated  the  evacuation  of 
Athens.  He  held  secret  communication  with  Xerxes,  pressing 
him  to  attack  the  confederate  fleet  commanded  by  Eurybiades, 
and  hastened  the  conflict  at  Salamis  which  proved  so  disas- 
trous to  Xerxes.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sparta,  and 
delayed  negotiations  long  enough  to  allow  the  Athenians  to 
rebuild  and  fortify  their  walls.  His  power  declined,  and  his 
political  enemies  had  him  ostracized.     He  retired  to  Argos, 

HAND.  GK.  &  ROM.  HIST. — 4 


46  GREEK  HISTORY 

met  Pausanias,  but  never  took  part  in  any  intrigue.  After  the 
latter's  death,  when  the  Ephors  seized  his  papers,  they  found 
some  of  Themistocles'  correspondence.  There  was  nothing  to 
implicate  him,  but  he, was  called  up  for  trial.  He  escaped  to 
the  court  of  Artaxerxes.  He  was  made  tyrant  of  Magnesia, 
and  died  in  460  b.c. 

Therm6pylaB.  A  narrow  pass  in  Thessaly,  where  Leonidas 
and  300  Spartans  were  betrayed  by  Ephialtes,  and  killed  by 
the  army  of  Xerxes  (480  b.c).  In  352  b.c.  Philip  of  Macedon 
was  repulsed  at  the  same  place  by  the  Greek  confederates. 

Thirty  Tyrants.  When  Athens  opened  her  gates  to  Lysan- 
der,  one  of  the  conditions  was  that  she  must  allow  the  return 
of  her  exiles.  On  their  return  the  democracy  was  overthrown 
and  an  oligarchical  government  of  thirty  persons  was  set  up 
under  the  leadership  of  Critias.  This  administration  was  des- 
potic and  gave  dissatisfaction.  The  democratic  party  and  the 
exiles,  led  by  Thrasybulus,  wanted  to  abolish  the  Tyrants.  Cri- 
tias was  killed  in  a  battle  at  the  Piraeus,  the  oligarchs  were 
driven  out,  and  the  democracy  was  restored  (403  b.c). 

Thirty  Years'  Peace.  A  truce  between  Sparta  and  Athens 
brought  about  by  Pericles  and  Callias  in  445  b.c  This  rup- 
ture practically  caused  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

Thrasybulus.     See  Alcibiades  and  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

Thrasyllus.     See  Alcibiades. 

Thucydides.  Son  of  Melesias,  and  a  relative  of  Cimon.  He 
opposed  the  policy  of  Pericles,  and  was  ostracized  (443  b.c). 

Thucydides.    A  celebrated  Greek  historian  (471-400  b.c). 

Tim61eon.  A  Corinthian.  He  led  a  Corinthian  expedition 
against  Dionysius  II.  and  liberated  Syracuse.  He  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  at  the  River  Crimisus, 
thus  saving  Sicily  from  Carthaginian  dominion  for  the  time 
being  (340  b.c).  Timoleon  fixed  his  residence  at  Syracuse  and 
lived  peacefully,  although  blind,  until  336  b.c  He  deserved 
the  surname  of  Liberator. 

Tissaphlrnes.  A  Persian  satrap.  He  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  Sparta  to  help  her  in  her  wars  against  Athens ;  but 


GREEK  HISTORY  47 

Alcibiades  caused  the  failure  of  the  plans  and  tried  to  make 
Tissaphernes  turn  his  goodwill  toward  Athens.  Alcibiades 
hoped,  through  this,  to  be  recalled  to  Athens  from  his  exile, 
but  was  not  successful.  Tissaphernes  pursued  the  Greeks  dur- 
ing the  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  after  Cunaxa.  He  sub- 
dued the  Greek  towns  of  the  Ionian  and  Aeolian  coast.  This 
caused  war  with  Sparta,  and  a  defeat  of  the  satrap  Pharnaba- 
zus  brought  Tissaphernes  to  terms.  He  was  beheaded  by 
order  of  Artaxerxes  for  his  unsuccessful  campaigns  against 
Agesilaus  (395  b.c). 

Tyrant.  The  meaning  was  not  one  who  ruled  harshly,  but 
one  who  had  supreme  power.  The  age  of  the  tyrants  lasted 
from  650  to  500  b.c,  properly  speaking,  but  there  were  many 
tyrants  during  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Nearly  all  were  over- 
thrown before  the  Persian  invasion. 

Tyre.  A  city  of  Phoenicia,  on  an  island.  It  was  taken  by 
Alexander  after  a  long  siege  (332  b.c). 

U 

Upland.     See  Plain. 

X 

Xanthippus.  An  Athenian  general,  who,  with  Leotychides, 
won  the  battle  of  Mycale  against  Xerxes  (479  b.c). 

Xinophon.  An  Athenian  general  who  conducted  the  retreat 
of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks  after  the  battle  of  Cunaxa 
(401  B.C.). 

Xerxes.  Son  and  successor  of  Darius  I.  (486-465  b.c).  He 
bridged  the  Hellespont,  invaded  Greece,  defeated  Leonidas  at 
Thermopylae  and  the  Greek  fleet  at  Artemisium  (480  b.c). 
He  invaded  Boeotia,  marched  into  Attica,  and  took  Athens 
(480  B.C.).  Defeated  at  Salamis,  Xerxes  returned  to  Asia. 
His  general,  Mardonius,  reentered  Attica.  Xerxes  came  back, 
and  he  and  Mardonius  lost  the  battle  of  Plataea  against 
Pausanias  (479  b.c).  Xerxes^  power  in  Greece  ended  in 
that  year,  as  he  was  defeated  at  Mycale  by  Leotychides  and 
Xanthippus. 


HANDBOOK   OP   ROMAN   HISTORY 


oXKc 


Achffian  League.  A  league  of  nearly  all  the  people  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  who  joined  the  Romans  against  Philip  Y.  (See 
Macedonian  Wars.)  After  the  battle  of  Pydna  and  the  conver- 
sion of  Macedonia  into  a  Roman  province,  a  war  broke  out 
between  the  Romans  and  the  Achaean  cities,  on  account  of 
an  insult  offered  to  Roman  ambassadors  (146  e.g.).  Corinth 
was  destroyed,  the  states  and  cities  of  Greece  were  compelled 
to  pay  a  yearly  tribute,  and  were  placed  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  governor  of  Macedonia. 

Achaia.  A  Greek  province  situated  between  the  Corinthian 
Gulf  and  the  mountains  of  northern  Arcadia.  Its  inhabitants 
formed  the  Achaean  League.  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  Greece 
was  separated  from  Macedonia  and  organized  as  an  independ- 
ent province  under  the  name  of  Achaia. 

A'ctium.  A  city,  promontory,  and  bay  on  the  western  coast 
of  Greece,  the  scene  of  the  naval  battle  between  Octavian  and 
Mark  Antony  (31  e.g.). 

Adrianople.  A  city  of  central  Thrace,  where  Licinius  de- 
feated Maximin  (311  a.d.),  and  where  the  emperor  Valens 
was  defeated  and  killed  during  his  campaign  against  the 
Goths  and  Visigoths  (378  a.d.). 

iE'duans.  A  tribe  of  Gaul  who  occupied  Burgundy.  They 
became  allies  of  Caesar  in  his  campaign  against  the  Helvetians 
(58  B.C.).  During  the  revolt  of  Vercingetorix  the  Aeduans 
supported  the  Arvernians  against  Caesar. 

49 


50  ROMAN  HISTORY 

-Agates.  Islands  west  of  Sicily,  where  the  Roman  fleet  com- 
manded by  Gains  Lutatins  Catulus  defeated  the  Carthaginians 
and  Syracusans  (241  b.c).    (See  First  Punic  War.) 

^gidius  (Count).  Military  governor  of  Gaul  under  Majo- 
rian.  He  resided  at  the  capital,  Paris.  He  was  one  of  the 
last  who  struggled  against  the  Germanic  nations. 

1.  .ffimilius  Paiilus,  Lucius.  Consul;  colleague  of  Varro.  He 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Cannae  (216  b.c). 

2.  .ffimilius  Paiilus,  Lucius.  Son  of  1.  Aemilius  Paulus  and 
father  of  Scipio  Aemilianus.  He  defeated  Perseus  at  the  battle 
of  Pydna  (168  b.c). 

M  'quians.  A  nation  whose  territory  was  situated  in  the  moun- 
tainous region  east  of  Rome.  They  were  bitter  enemies  of  the 
Romans.  They  occupied  Mount  Algidus  and  commanded  the 
Latin  "Way,  but  were  defeated  by  Cincinnatus.  They  regained 
the  pass  in  458  b.c,  but  were  obliged  to  surrender  Mount 
Algidus  to  the  dictator  Postumius.  Together  with  the  Vol- 
scians  and  Etruscans  they  assailed  Rome  after  the  invasion  of 
the  Gauls,  and  were  finally  repulsed  by  Camillus  (386  b.c). 

Aetius.  A  general  and  statesman  under  emperor  Valenti- 
nian  III.  He  occupied  an  important  post  in  Italy.  He  was 
jealous  of  Boniface,  governor  of  the  Roman  province  of  Africa 
and  favorite  of  Placidia,  the  mother  of  the  emperor,  and  led 
him  to  mistrust  Placidia.  Pearing  the  empress,  Boniface  sum- 
moned Gaiseric  and  the  Vandals  from  Spain,  promising  them 
land  in  Africa  (429  a.d.).  He  soon  discct^ered  his  error,  and 
tried  to  repulse  Gaiseric,  but  was  unsuccessful,  and  the  Van- 
dals remained  in  Africa.  Aetius  killed  Boniface  in  a  conflict, 
and  for  nearly  twenty  years  managed  the  affairs  of  the  empire, 
repulsing  the  invasions  of  the  Burgundians,  Franks,  and 
Alamannians.  The  Huns  under  command  of  Attila  crossed 
the  Rhine,  entered  Gaul,  and  were  defeated  at  the  Battle  of 
the  Peoples  by  Aetius,  with  the  help  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Visigoths,  who  was  killed  during  the  fight  (452  a.d.).  Attila 
came  again  the  same  year,  this  time  crossing  the  Julian  Alps, 
but  retired  at  the  request  of  Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome.     The  ene- 


ROMAN  HISTORY  '  51 

mies  of  Aetius  held  him  responsible  for  the  invasions  of  Attila, 
and  induced  Valentinian  to  have  him  assassinated  (454  a.d.). 

-flEt61ian  League.  The  Aetolians  were  a  nation  of  northern 
Greece,  allies  of  Rome  in  the  war  against  Philip  V.  The 
league,  freed  from  Macedonian  rule  and  having  acquired  large 
territory,  became  dissatisfied  and  joined  Antiochus  against 
Rome. 

A'frica.  The  territory  occupied  by  Carthage.  It  became,  after 
the  destruction  of  that  city,  a  Roman  province,  with  Utica  as 
its  capital.  Gains  Gracchus  founded  there  a  colony  called 
Junonia.     (See  Caesar,  Boniface,  Vandals.) 

A'ger  Romanus.  The  original  territory  of  Rome ;  at  the  end 
of  the  Social  War  it  extended  over  the  whole  of  Italy. 

Agrarian  Laws.  See  Sp.  Cassius,  G.  Flaminius,  T.  Gracchus, 
and  C.  Gracchus. 

A'gri  Decumates.  The  emperor  Domitian  constructed  a 
number  of  forts  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube,  thus  lessen- 
ing the  territory  of  the  Germans.  The  lands  thus  acquired 
became  a  Roman  province  under  the  name  of  Agri  Decumates 
(Tithe  Lands). 

Agricola,  Gneeus  Julius.  A  Roman  general  sent  by  Domitian 
to  complete  the  conquest  of  Britain  (77  a.d.).  He  governed 
the  subdued  people  successfully,  but  inspired  Domitian  with 
jealousy,  and  was  recalled. 

Agrigentum.  A  seaport  of  southern  Sicily,  captured  by  the 
Romans  at  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  Wars. 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius.  A  statesman  of  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  who,  to  show  him  his  esteem,  gave  him  his  daughter 
Julia  in  marriage. 

1.  Agrippina.  Granddaughter  of  Augustus,  wife  of  Germ  ani- 
ens, and  mother  of  Caligula  and  2.  Agrippina.     She  died  in 

33  A.D. 

2.  Agrippina.  Daughter  of  Germ  aniens  and  1.  Agrippina. 
She  poisoned  her  husband  Claudius  to  assure  the  throne  to 
Nero,  her  son  by  a  previous  marriage.  She  was  put  to  death 
by  order  of  Nero  in  59  a.d. 


62  ROMAN  HISTORY 

A'hriman.     See  Mazdeism. 

Alamannians.  Barbarians  occupying  territory  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Danube.  They  advanced  beyond  Domitian's 
fortified  posts  (see  Agri  Decumates),  were  defeated  by  Cara- 
calla  (213  a.d.),  but  later  on  succeeded  in  taking  possession  of 
the  upper  Rhine.  The  Franks  joined  them,  crossed  the  fron- 
tier, and  entered  modern  Alsace.  The  emperor  Julian  de- 
feated them  at  Strassburg  (357  a.d.).  They  advanced  again 
with  the  Burgundians  and  Franks,  and  were  repulsed  by 
Aetius  (443  a.d.).  They  took  an  active  part  at  the  Battle 
of  the  Peoples  (451  a.d.).  During  the  last  years  of  the  empire, 
towards  480  a.d.,  the  Alamannians  settled  east  of  Gaul  and 
the  Franks  north  of  Gaul. 

Alans.  Barbarians  of  Hunnic  origin,  who  joined  the  Van- 
dals, crossed  the  Rhine,  and  invaded  Gaul  in  406  a.d.,  during 
the  reign  of  Honorius. 

A'laric.  King  of  the  Visigoths.  He  invaded  Greece,  then 
Italy.  He  was  defeated  by  Stilicho,  at  Polenta  in  402  a.d., 
and  at  Verona  in  403  a.d.  He  captured  Rome  by  famine  in 
408  A.D.,  and  again  sacked  the  city  in  409-410  a.d.  He  died  in 
southern  Italy  and  was  buried  in  the  bed  of  the  Busento  River 
(410  A.D.).    He  left  the  command  to  Athaulf,  his  brother-in-law. 

Alba  L6nga  (the  Long  White  City).  The  principal  city  of  the 
Latin  Confederacy;  conquered  by  Rome  under  Tullus  Hosti- 
lius  (666  B.C.). 

Al^sia  (modern  Alise).  A  city  of  modern  Burgundy,  where 
Caesar  defeated  and  made  prisoner  Vercingetorix,  the  Arver- 
nian  chief  (52  b.c). 

Alexandria.  A  city  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  founded  by 
Alexander  the  Great.  Caesar  landed  at  Alexandria  when  he 
was  pursuing  Pompey. 

Algidus,  Mount.     See  .Siquians  and  Aulus  Postumius. 

Allia.  A  river  eleven  miles  from  Rome.  There  the  Gauls 
defeated  the  Romans  in  380  b.c. 

Alps.  Mountains  of  northern  Italy.  The  Maritime  Alps 
separate  Italy  from  Gaul  and  Germany ;  the  Julian  Alps  lead 


ROMAN   HISTORY  63 

to  the  valley  of  the  Danube  through  an  easy  pass,  repeatedly 
used  in  wars. 

Ambarvalia.  A  procession  for  the  blessing  of  the  fields, 
which  took  place  in  May. 

A'ncus  Marcius.  The  patrician  king  who  succeeded  Tul- 
lus  Hostilius  (641-617  B.C.).  He  extended  the  Roman  con- 
quests to  the  north  of  the  Tiber  and  founded  the  seaport  of 
Ostia. 

Antiochus.  King  of  Syria.  He  was  the  ally  of  Philip  V.  of 
Macedon,  but  abandoned  him  before  the  battle  of  Cynoscepha- 
lae.     (See  Macedonian  Wars.) 

Antoninus  Pius.  The  fourth  of  the  good  emperors  and  first 
of  the  Antonines  (138-161  a.d.).  His  reign  was  peaceful  and 
without  incident. 

Ant6nius,  Marcus  (Mark  Antony).  Tribune  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War  (49  B.C.)  and  consul  with  Julius  Caesar 
(44  B.C.).  He  was  spared,  as  well  as  Lepidus,  by  the  murder- 
ers of  Caesar.  After  the  latter's  death,  Antony  became  very 
powerful,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Second  Triumvirate  with 
Octavian  and  Lepidus.  He  defeated  the  tribune  Cassius  at 
Philippi  (42  B.C.),  then  governed  the  East  and  joined  Cleopa- 
tra. He  married  Octavia,  sister  of  Octavian,  but  divorced  her 
and  returned  to  Cleopatra.  The  Romans  were  exasperated  at 
his  conduct ;  Octavian  marched  against  him  and  defeated  him 
at  Actium  (31  b.c).  Antony  killed  himself  and  Cleopatra  also 
committed  suicide. 

A'pennines.  A  mountain  range  starting  from  the  Maritime 
Alps  and  extending  the  length  of  the  Italian  peninsula  and 
continuing  into  Sicily. 

A'ppian  Way.  The  first  military  road  from  Rome  to  Capua. 
Built  by  Appius  Claudius.  Many  parts  of  it  are  still  in  good 
preservation. 

Apulia.  A  part  of  southern  Italy,  through  which  flows  the 
Aufidus.     (See  Hannibal.) 

A 'quae  Sextiae  (modern  Aix).  A  city  of  southern  Gaul, 
where  Marius  routed  the  Teutons  (102  b.c).     (See  Cimbri.) 


54  ROMAN   HISTORY 

Aquil^ia.  A  city  of  northeastern  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic, 
attacked  by  the  Marcomanni  during  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  who  kept  them  in  check.  They  were  the  first 
tribe  of  those  Germans  who  later  on  caused  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  Aquileia  was  destroyed  by  Attila  in 
452  A.D. 

Aquitania.  One  of  the  three  divisions  of  Gaul  made  by 
Caesar :  Belgica  in  the  north ;  Lugdunensis  in  the  center ; 
Aquitania  in  the  southwest.  The  divisions  were  known  as 
Tres  Oalliae. 

Aransio  (modern  Orange).  A  city  of  southern  Gaul,  on  the 
Rhone,  where  the  Romans  sustained  a  crushing  defeat  by  the 
Cimbri  and  Teutons  (105  B.C.). 

Arcadius  (395-408  a.d.).  Son  of  Theodosius,  emperor  of 
the  East  with  Rufinus.     His  reign  was  not  important. 

Archimedes.  A  great  mathematician  who  defended  Syra- 
cuse, but  was  himself  killed  during  the  pillage  of  the  city 
by  the  Romans.     (See  Punic  Wars.) 

Ariovistus.  A  German  king  who  crossed  the  Rhine  and 
entered  Gaul,  but  was  defeated  by  Caesar  (58  b.c). 

A'rius  (280-336  a.d.).  A  learned  ecclesiastic  of  Alexandria, 
the  head  of  one  of  the  two  parties  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea 
(325  A.D.). 

Arminius  (Hermann).     See  Teutoburg  Forest. 

A'rnus  (modern  Arno).  A  river  of  northern  Etruria,  flowing 
into  the  Tuscan  or  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  The  seat  of  some  of  the 
conflicts  bet\^een  Hannibal  and  the  Romans  in  the  Second 
Punic  War. 

Arpinum.  A  city  of  Latium,  the  birthplace  of  Marius  and 
Cicero. 

Arvlrnians.     See  Vercingetorix  and  Caesar. 

A'sculum.  A  city  of  TJmbria,  near  the  Adriatic  coast,  where 
Pyrrhus  defeated  the  Romans  (279  b.c). 

Asiatic  War.  The  Aetolians,  dissatisfied  with  their  share 
of  the  treaty  after  the  Macedonian  Wars,  joined  Antiochus, 
king  of  Syria,  against  the  Rhodians  and  Eumenes,  king  of 


ROMAN  HISTORY  55 

Pergamus.  The  Rhodians  and  Eumenes  were  the  allies  of  the 
Romans,  who  naturally  espoused  their  cause.  The  Romans 
were  helped  by  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  by  Prusias,  king  of 
Bithynia,  and  by  the  Achaeans.  Antiochus  and  his  allies 
were  first  defeated  at  Thermopylae  (191  b.c),  and  then  at 
Magnesia  (190  b.c).  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Antio- 
chus was  guided  by  the  advice  of  Hannibal,  the  Romans,  led 
by  Lucius  Scipio  Asiaticus,  brother  of  the  victor  of  Zama,  won 
great  laurels  at  Magnesia.  Peace  was  signed,  the  dominions 
of  Eumenes  were  enlarged,  and  Rhodes  gained  valuable  terri- 
tory. 

Athanasius  (296-373  a.d.).  A  celebrated  ecclesiastic  of  Alex- 
andria, the  head  of  one  of  the  two  parties  at  the  Council  of 
Nicaea  (325  a.d.). 

A'thaulf  (Atawulf).  Brother-in-law  of  Alaric,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  king  of  the  Visigoths.  His  policy  was  to  be  at 
peace  with  the  Romans  3  therefore  he  treated  with  Honorius 
at  Ravenna,  took  the  Visigoths  back  to  Gaul,  and  settled 
there  just  at  the  time  of  the  overthrow  of  Constantine  the 
Usurper  (412  a.d.).  Athaulf  was  in  love  with  Galla  Placidia, 
sister  of  Honorius.  This  princess  was  a  prisoner  of  the  Goths. 
Honorius  forbade  the  marriage,  as  he  had  destined  his  sister 
for  Constantius,  the  officer  who  had  overthrown  the  usurper 
Constantine;  but  the  lovers  married  in  disregard  of  the  em- 
peror's order.  Constantius  soon  obliged  Athaulf  to  leave 
Gaul  and  go  to  Spain,  where  he  was  murdered  at  Barcelona 
(415  A.D.).     Constantius  then  married  Placidia. 

A'ttalus  II.  The  last  king  of  Pergamus.  He  bequeathed 
his  territory,  western  Asia  Minor,  to  the  Romans. 

A'ttila.     See  Huns. 

Aiifidus.  A  river  of  southern  Italy,  emptying  into  the  Adria- 
tic Sea.  On  its  border  is  the  town  of  Cannae,  where  Hannibal 
annihilated  the  Roman  army  commanded  by  Varro  (216  b.c). 

Aiigurs.    A  body  of  priests  who  interpreted  the  auspices. 

Augustus  (Gaius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus  Augustus).  Grand- 
nephew  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  adopted  him  and  made  him  his 


56  ROMAN   HISTORY 

heir.  He  formed  the  Second  Triumvirate  with  Antony  and 
Lepidus.  They  defeated  Brutus  and  Cassius,  two  of  the  mur- 
derers of  Caesar,  at  Philippi,  and  thus  confirmed  the  power 
of  the  Triumvirate.  Octavian  marched  against  Antony  and 
Cleopatra,  and  defeated  his  colleague  at  Actium  (31  b.c).  (See 
Antonius.)  Octavian  annexed  Egypt  to  the  empire,  and 
returned  to  Rome,  and  celebrated  a  triumph.  In  27  b.c. 
the  name  of  triumvir  was  given  up,  as  Antony  was  dead  and 
Lepidus  had  retired  from  the  political  field.  The  senate  con- 
ferred upon  Octavian  the  title  of  Augustus  Imperator.  Thus 
commenced  the  empire.  He  annexed  the  territory  on  the 
lower  Danube,  calling  it  Moesia;  then  he  occupied  Raetia 
and  Noricum,  the  lands  north  of  Italy  as  far  as  the  Danube. 
His  stepsons,  Tiberius  and  Drusus,  had  charge  of  this  cam- 
paign. The  Roman  dominion  was  extended  from  the  Rhine 
to  the  Elbe.  The  Germans  revolting,  Lucius  Varus  was  sent 
against  them,  but  was  defeated  at  the  Teutoburg  Forest.  This 
disaster  caused  bitter  grief  to  Augustus,  who  died  in  14  a.d. 
His  reign,  called  the  Golden  Age,  was  made  illustrious  by 
Vergil,  Horace,  Ovid,  Propertius,  Livy,  Nepos,  and  Maecenas, 
the  protector  of  literary  men. 

Aur^lian.  Emperor,  270-275  a.d.  Although  by  birth  a  peas- 
ant, Aurelian  was  a  man  of  ability.  He  succeeded  Claudius 
Gothicus,  who  reigned  two  years  and  died  of  the  plague.  In 
the  west  the  Tyrants  had  formed  an  empire,  comprising  Gaul, 
Britain,  and  part  of  Spain,  at  this  time  occupied  by  Tetricus. 
Aurelian  saw  the  impossibility  of  keeping  Trajan's  conquests 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Danube,  and  he  abandoned  them  to 
the  Goths.  The  Alamannians  invaded  the  valley  of  the  Po, 
but  Aurelian  defeated  them.  He  was  forced  to  march  against 
Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  for  breaking  the  alliance  with 
Rome,  in  extending  her  boundaries  to  Egypt  and  part  of 
Asia  Minor.  Aurelian  defeated  and  took  her  prisoner,  and 
destroyed  Palmyra  (273  a.d.).  He  undertook  to  restore  order 
in  the  west,  and  defeated  Tetricus ;  but  he  died  before  com- 
pleting his  task. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  67 

Aur^lius,  Marcus.  Emperor,  161-180  a.d.  He  was  the 
adopted  son  of  Antonius  Pius,  whom  he  succeeded.  The 
plague,  brought  back  by  the  army  returning  from  a  campaign 
against  the  Parthians,  broke  out.  The  blame  for  this  pest 
was  attributed  to  the  Christians,  and  a  terrific  persecution 
took  place  (177  a.d.).  The  greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Aure- 
lius  was  employed  in  keeping  in  check  the  Marcomanni  and 
other  small  tribes.  His  death  was  sudden,  and  occurred  at 
Vindabona  (Vienna). 

Auspices.  A  system  of  divination  performed  by  noting  the 
flight  and  cries  of  birds.  The  auspices  were  taken  by  the 
augurs,  whose  interpretation  of  the  signs  determined  the  con- 
templated course  of  action. 

A'ventine.  A  high  hill  added  to  Rome's  territory  under  Tar- 
quinius.  The  hill  was  assigned  to  the  plebeians  (see  Terenti- 
lian  Laws  and  Quinctius  Kaeso).  On  it  was  built  a  temple  of 
Diana,  and  a  temple  of  Juno  was  erected  on  it  after  the  cam- 
paign against  the  Veiians. 

B 

Barca.     See  Hamilcar. 

Battle  of  the  Peoples  (452  a.d.).  The  scene  of  this  battle 
seems  to  have  been  south  of  Chalons,  near  Mery-sur-Seine,  in 
the  Department  of  Aube  (France).  In  this  battle  Aetius,  aided 
by  Theodoric,  gained  the  victory  over  Attila  and  the  Huns. 

B^lgica.     See  Aquitania. 

Beneventum.  A  city  of  southern  Italy,  northeast  of  Naples. 
Here  the  Romans,  led  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus,  gained  a  victory 
over  Pyrrhus  (275  B.C.). 

Bithynia.  A  province  in  the  north  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
became  an  ally  of  Rome  under  King  Prusias  during  the  Asiatic 
War,  and  was  made  a  Roman  province.  To  it  was  added  the 
greater  part  of  Mithradates'  dominions  after  his  defeat  by 
Pompey.  Nicomedia,  its  chief  city,  was  the  capital  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  under  Diocletian. 

B6niface.     See  Aetius. 


58  ROMAN   HISTORY 

Britain.  Britain  was  visited  by  Julius  Caesar  in  54  b.c. 
It  was  conquered  and  became  a  Roman  province  under  Clau- 
dius in  43  A.D.  The  country  fell  under  the  government  of 
Tetricus  at  the  time  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  If  was  reorgan- 
ized under  Diocletian,  and  ruled  by  the  usurper  Constantine 
(408  A.D.).  The  Roman  troops  were  gradually  withdrawn,  and 
the  Britons,  left  alone,  were  attacked  by  the  Scots.  They 
implored  the  help  of  the  Saxons.  This  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  (450  a.d.). 

Britannicus.  Son  of  Claudius  and  Messalina.  He  should 
have  reigned  after  the  death  of  Claudius,  but  Agrippina, 
second  wife  of  Claudius,  persuaded  him  to  give  the  throne  to 
Nero,  her  son  by  a  first  marriage.  Britannicus  was  poisoned 
by  order  of  Nero. 

1.  Brutus,  D^cimus  Junius.  One  of  the  conspirators  against 
Caesar.  After  Caesar's  death,  he  assumed  command  in  Cisal- 
pine Gaul,  but  was  vanquished  by  Antony. 

2.  Brutus,  Lucius  Junius.  A  Roman  patrician,  who  brought 
about  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  and  was  the  first  consul 
under  the  Republic. 

3.  Bnitus,  Marcus  Junius.  One  of  Caesar's  murderers.  After 
the  murder  he  joined  Cassius  and  fought  against  Antony  and 
Octavian  at  Philippi.  He  was  defeated,  and  killed  himself 
(42  B.C.). 

Burgiindians.  A  barbarian  people  whose  territory  was  along 
the  Oder.  They  advanced  on  the  Rhine  during  the  reign  of 
Honorius,  and  made  the  city  of  Worms  their  capital.  Like 
the  Alamannians  and  Franks,  they  advanced  further  west 
(443  A.D.),  and  were  defeated  by  Aetius. 

Burrhus.  Praetorian  praefect  under  Nero;  supplanted  by 
Tigellinus. 

Busento.   A  river  of  southern  Italy,  where  Alaric  was  buried. 

Byzantium.  A  Greek  colony  between  the  Golden  Horn  and 
the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Marmora).  Constantine  the  Great  made 
it  the  new  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  called  it  Con- 
stantinople (328  A.D.). 


ROMAN  HISTORY  69 


Csere.  An  Etruscan  city  near  Tarquinii  on  the  western 
coast  of  Italy,  where  the  tomb  of  the  Tarquins  was  discovered. 
Caere  was  added  to  the  Roman  territory  in  353  b.c. 

Cffisar,  Gaius  Julius.  A  young  patrician  suspected  of  having 
taken  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline.  He  formed  the  First 
Triumvirate  with  Pompey  and  Crassus,  and  he  was  elected 
consul  in  59  b.c.  As  proconsul  he  received  the  government 
of  three  provinces :  Cisalpine  Gaul,  Illyricum,  and  Transal- 
pine Gaul.  He  assisted  Clodius  in  effecting  the  banishment 
of  Cicero.  In  55  b.c.  the  senate  prolonged  his  command  in 
Gaul  for  five  years,  and  gave  Pompey  the  command  of  Spain, 
and  Crassus  that  of  Syria.  Caesar  was  victorious  in  his 
campaigns  against  the  Helvetians  (58  b.c.)  and  the  Germans 
commanded  by  Ariovistus.  He  made  an  expedition  to  Britain 
in  54  B.C.,  but  with  no  important  results.  In  52  b.c  he 
had  to  face  a  formidable  insurrection  of  the  Gauls  under 
Vercingetorix.  He  defeated  them  at  the  siege  of  Alesia  and 
completed  the  conquest  of  Gaul.  Caesar  wished  to  become 
consul  for  the  year  48.  The  law  required  candidates  to  be 
present  in  person,  and  he  could  not  do  so  unless  he  gave  up 
his  proconsulship.  The  law  had  several  times  been  suspended, 
and  in  Caesar's  case  the  triumvirs  had  agreed  to  allow  him 
to  offer  himself  for  the  office  without  leaving  his  command. 
But  Pompey  was  jealous  of  Caesar's  successes,  and  failed  to 
procure  for  Caesar  the  legal  privilege,  but  took  the  leadership 
of  his  opponents.  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon  (49  b.c.)  and 
compelled  Pompey  to  take  to  flight.  He  escaped  to  Thessa- 
lonica,  accompanied  by  many  senators,  and  there  established 
a  rival  government.  Caesar  brought  Spain  under  his  authority, 
captured  the  important  city  of  Massilia,  was  made  dictator, 
and  then  consul  in  48  b.c  He  regulated  the  finances  and  gave 
special  attention  to  the  treatment  of  debtors.  He  marched 
against  Pompey,  and  was  defeated  at  Dyrrachium,  but  won 
a  decisive  victory  at  Pharsalus  in  Thessaly  (48  b.c).    Pompey 


60  ROMAN  HISTORY 

fled  to  Egypt,  Caesar  followed  him ;  when  he  arrived  at  Alex- 
andria he  found  that  his  antagonist  had  been  beheaded  by 
order  of  Ptolemy.  Caesar  replaced  Cleopatra  on  the  throne 
of  Egypt,  which  Ptolemy  had  usurped  (48  b.c).  Pharnaces, 
king  of  Pontus  in  Asia  Minor,  and  son  of  Mithradates,  opposed 
Caesar,  but  was  quickly  defeated  (47  b.c).  The  famous  words, 
Veni,  Vidi,  Vici  (I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered),  used  by  Caesar, 
picture  his  quick  campaign  against  Pharnaces.  Caesar  was 
made  dictator  a  second  time ;  he  quelled  a  mutiny  of  the 
troops  with  remarkable  ability  and  marched  against  Metellus 
Scipio,  who  led  the  troops  of  his  political  opponents,  and 
defeated  him  at  Thapsus  (46  e.g.).  He  returned  to  Rome  and 
celebrated  a  triumph.  He  was  made  dictator  a  third  time. 
The  party  of  Pompey,  or  the  republican  party,  was  dissolved ; 
his  sons,  Gnaeus  and  Sextus,  established  an  independent 
government  in  Spain,  but  Caesar  defeated  them  at  Munda 
(45  B.C.).  He  received  the  title  of  Imperator,  thus  establish- 
ing a  sort  of  constitutional  monarchy,  and  ending  the  Republic 
(44  B.C.).  Such  a  power  engendered  jealousy  and  dissatisfac- 
tion. A  conspiracy  was  formed  to  murder  Caesar  and  establish 
a  republic ;  he  was  assassinated  on  March  15th,  44  b.c.  (See 
Second  Civil  War.) 

Caligula  (Gaius).  Emperor,  37^1  a.d.  Son  of  Germanicus 
and  Agrippina,  and  successor  of  Tiberius.  His  accession  to 
the  throne  was  welcomed,  but  the  joy  was  of  short  duration. 
He  was  a  whimsical,  tyrannical,  and  bloodthirsty  monarch. 
He  was  assassinated  by  an  officer  of  the  Praetorian  Guard  in 
41  A.D.     With  him  ended  the  list  of  Julian  Caesars. 

Calpiirnius  Piso.  An  officer  of  Germanicus  who  is  suspected 
of  having  poisoned  him. 

Camillus,  Marcus  Furius.  The  Roman  dictator  who  captured 
the  Etruscan  city  of  Veii  (396  b.c).  To  him  are  due  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Gauls  after  their  capture  of  Rome  (390  b.c),  the 
reform  in  military  tactics,  and  the  subjugation  of  the  neighbor- 
ing enemies  of  Rome,  the  Yeians,  the  Volscians,  the  Aequians, 
and  the  Etruscans. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  61 

Campania.  A  district  of  southwestern  Italy,  connected  with 
Rome  by  the  valley  of  the  Liris. 

Campus  Martius.  A  plain  lying  between  the  Capitoline  Hill 
and  the  Tiber,  and  thus  originally  outside  the  walls.  It  was 
used  as  a  parade  ground  and  place  of  military  reviews.  Later, 
elections  were  held  there. 

Cannae.  A  city  of  Apulia,  on  the  border  of  the  River  Aufi- 
dus,  where  Hannibal  destroyed  the  Roman  army  led  by  Varro 
(216  B.C.). 

Canuleian  Law.     See  Twelve  Tables. 

Capitol.  The  chief  temple  of  Jupiter  in  Rome,  built  on  the 
Capitoline  Hill  during  the  reign  of  the  Tarquins. 

Capitoline.     One  of  the  seven  hills  and  the  citadel  of  Rome. 

Capreae  (modern  Capri).  An  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Naples, 
where  the  emperor  Tiberius  passed  the  last  years  of  his 
life. 

Capua.  A  city  of  ancient  Campania,  near  the  Tuscan  coast, 
taken  by  the  Romans  during  the  First  Samnite  War,  and  occu- 
pied by  Hannibal  after  his  victory  at  Cannae. 

Caracalla  (Antoninus).  Emperor,  211-217  a.d.  Septimius 
Severus  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Geta  and  Caracalla.  One 
year  after,  Caracalla  murdered  Geta  and  reigned  alone.  He 
was  an  able  soldier,  but  his  character  was  cruel  and  revenge- 
ful. He  gave  the  citizenship  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Roman  provinces  in  212,  and  defeated  the  Alamannians  in 
213  A.D.  He  was  murdered  by  Macrinus,  commander  of  the 
Praetorian  Guard.  The  gigantic  baths  erected  by  him  are 
among  the  most  striking  monuments  of  Rome. 

Carrhae.  A  city  of  Parthia,  near  which  the  triumvir  Cras- 
sus  was  defeated  during  his  campaign  against  Orodes  (55  b.c). 

Carthage.  An  important  city  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa, 
and  the  greatest  rival  of  Rome.  Its  ruins  are  near  the  modern 
city  of  Tunis.  Carthage  made  a  treaty  with  Rome  in  343  b.c, 
very  advantageous  to  the  Latin  cities.  The  Carthaginians 
were  for  a  long  time  at  war  with  Rome  under  Hamilcar,  Has- 
drubal,  and  Hannibal.     The  city  was  finally  destroyed,  after  a 

HAND.  GK.  &  ROM.  «18T.  —  5 


62  ROMAN  HISTORY 

siege  of  three  years,  by  the  Roman  general  Scipio  Aemilia- 
nus  (146  B.C.). 

1.  Cassius,  Spurius.  Roman  consul.  The  treaties  made  by 
him  brought  about  the  Triple  Alliance  (486  b.c),  with 
the  Latin  Confederacy  (a  dozen  independent  cities)  and  the 
Hernican  Confederacy,  for  protection  against  the  Sabines, 
Volscians,  and  Aequians.  Cassius  was  suspected  of  aiming 
to  make  himself  king,  and  was  put  to  death  by  the  people 
(485  B.C.).  He  was  a  promoter  of  the  Agrarian  Laws,  by 
which  he  advocated  the  idea  of  distributing  the  public  lands 
(lands  taken  during  wars)  among  the  plebeians. 

2.  Cassius,  Quintus.     Tribune  with  Mark  Antony. 

3.  Cassius  Longinus,  Gaius.  One  of  the  murderers  of  Julius 
Caesar.  He  became  governor  of  Syria  during  the  first  part  of 
Antony's  administration.  He  killed  himself  on  the  battlefield 
of  Philippi  (42  b.c). 

Catiline  (Lucius  Sergius  Catilina).  A  young  patrician  who 
conspired  against  the  senate  (63  b.c).  The  plot  was  discov- 
ered by  Cicero,  the  insurgent  army  was  defeated  in  Etruria, 
and  Catiline  was  killed. 

1.  Cato,  Marcus  Porcius  (Cato  the  Censor,  232-147  b.c).  For 
many  years  Cato  was  the  leading  politician  of  Rome.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  integrity  and  ability,  and  a  stern  opponent  of 
the  Greek  influence.  He  composed  a  number  of  works,  among 
them  a  treatise  on  agriculture  and  the  Origiyies,  a  treatise  on 
Roman  history.  During  his  censorship  he  erected  a  court- 
house called  the  Basilica  Porcia,  between  the  senate  house 
and  the  Capitoline.  He  was  an  uncompromising  advocate  of 
the  destruction  of  Carthage. 

2.  Cato,  Marcus  Porcius.  One  of  the  leaders  of  the  republi- 
can party  in  Africa.  He  held  Utica  while  his  associate  Metel- 
lus  Scipio  commanded  the  army  in  the  field.  They  were  finally 
defeated  by  Caesar  at  Thapsus  (46  b.c),  and  Cato  on  hearing 
the  news  killed  himself. 

Catullus,  Quintus  Valerius.  One  of  the  greatest  Latin  lyric 
poets,  born  87  b.c 


ROMAN  HISTORY  63 

1.  Catulus,  Gaius  Lutatius.  The  consul  who  commanded  the 
Roman  fleet  in  the  battle  of  the  Aegates  (241  B.C.). 

2.  Catulus,  Gaius  Lutatius.  Consul  with  Marius,  with  whom 
he  cut  to  pieces  the  Cimbri  at  the  Raudian  Fields,  near  Ver- 
cellae,  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  (101  B.C.).     (See  Marius.) 

Caudine  Forks.  A  narrow  pass  in  the  Apennines,  near  Capua, 
on  the  Tuscan  seacoast,  where  the  Roman  army  was  captured 
during  the  Second  Samnite  War  (321  b.c). 

Censorship.  The  office  of  censor.  This  magistrate  was 
elected  for  five  years.  His  duties  were  to  classify  the  citi- 
zens according  to  their  property,  as  a  guide  for  the  polls, 
the  taxes,  and  the  military  service.  The  work  took  one  year 
and  a  half,  when  the  censor  performed  an  act  of  purification 
called  lustrum.  The  office  remained  vacant  for  the  rest  of  the 
term. 

Centuries.  Servius  Tullius  reformed  the  military  service, 
and  imposed  it  upon  all  land  owners,  patricians  and  plebeians, 
who  were  divided  into  five  classes,  and  each  class  into  a  num- 
ber of  centuries,  with  two  equal  groups,  —  the  juniores,  below 
forty-six  years  old,  and  the  seniores,  men  who  were  above  the 
age  of  active  service. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius.  The  most  celebrated  of  Roman  ora- 
tors, born  near  Arpinum  in  106  b.c.  After  spending  two  years 
at  Athens,  in  order  to  perfect  his  eloquence,  he  was  made 
quaestor  in  Sicily  (75  b.c)  and  won  many  lawsuits.  He  held 
the  consulship  in  63  b.c  ;  and  the  same  year  discovered  and 
suppressed  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline.  For  this  great  deed, 
Cicero  received  the  title  of  Father  of  his  Country.  During  the 
First  Triumvirate,  the  demagogue  Publius  Clodius,  an  enemy 
of  Cicero,  used  his  influence  to  carry  a  law  which  banished 
any  person  who  had  put  to  death  a  Roman  citizen  without  trial. 
Clodius  and  his  partisans  accused  Cicero  of  having  executed 
those  involved  in  Catiline's  conspiracy  without  a  regular  trial, 
and  Cicero  was  banished  in  58  b.c  He  retired  to  Thessalonica 
and  afterwards  to  Dyrrachium.  About  sixteen  months  after- 
wards he  was  recalled.    During  the  Second  Civil  War  he  became 


64  ROMAN  HISTORY 

a  partisan  of  Pompey,  but  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalus,  in 
which  he  took  no  part,  he  retired  from  the  political  field. 
When  Caesar  was  murdered,  Cicero  declared  himself  opposed 
to  Antony ;  he  attacked  him  in  his  "  Philippics "  (not  to  be 
confounded  with  Demosthenes'  Philippics)  and  tendered  a 
friendly  hand  to  the  young  Octavian ;  but  when  the  Second 
Triumvirate  was  formed,  Antony  used  all  his  power  against 
Cicero,  and  had  him  killed  at  Formiae,  in  southern  Latium, 
in  43  B.C. 

Cimbri.  German  hordes  who  defeated  the  Romans  at  Aran- 
sio  (105  B.C.).  The  Cimbri  and  Teutons  invaded  Transalpine 
Gaul.  The  Cimbri  were  routed  by  Marius  and  Catulus  at  the 
Raudian  Fields,  near  Vercellae  (101  b.c).  The  Teutons  were 
defeated  at  Aquae  Sextiae  by  Marius  (102  b.c). 

Ciminian  Forest.  A  mountain  range  of  Etruria,  north  of 
Veii,  where  the  consul  Quintus  Fabius  defeated  the  Etruscans 
(310  B.C.). 

Cincinnatus,  Lucius  Quinctius.  A  venerable  Roman,  father  of 
Kaeso  Quinctius,  for  whom  he  w^as  compelled  to  forfeit  an 
enormous  bail.  This  impoverished  Cincinnatus,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  retire  to  a  little  farm.  Shortly  after,  in  458  b.c, 
he  was  made  dictator  in  order  to  quell  the  troubles  caused 
by  the  Terentilian  laws. 

Cineas.     See  Pyrrhus. 

Cinna,  Lucius  Cornelius.     See  Marius. 

Cisalpine  Gaul  (Gaul  this  side  of  the  Alps).  The  territory 
embraced  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  from  which  the  Gauls 
expelled  the  Etrurians.  Caesar  gave  to  its  inhabitants  the 
rights  of  citizenship.     (See  Transalpine  Gaul.) 

1.  Civil  War.  It  was  caused  by  the  Sulpician  laws  (88  b.c), 
proposed  by  P.  Sulpicius  Rufus,  removing  the  command  from 
Sulla  and  giving  it  to  Marius.  Sulla  marched  upon  Rome 
and  was  victorious.  Marius  escaped.  This  was  followed  by 
the  First  and  Second  Mithradatic  wars,  conducted  by  Sulla 
(88  B.C.).  During  his  absence  Cinna  revolted  and  called  Marius 
back,  and  they  massacred  many  of  their  opponents.     Marius 


ROMAN  HISTORY  65 

was  named  consul  for  the  seventh  time,  but  he  died  soon  after 
(86  B.C.).  Sulla  returned,  and  was  joined  by  Metellus  Pius, 
Marcus  Crassus,  and  Pompey.  The  former  partisans  of  Marius, 
led  by  his  son,  continued  the  Civil  War,  and  Sulla  defeated 
them  at  the  Colline  Gate.  Then  Sulla  started  his  pro- 
scriptions, by  means  of  which  he  made  way  with  his  political 
enemies. 

2.  Civil  War.  This  war  is,  in  fact,  the  contest  between 
Pompey  and  Caesar.  The  former  had  married  Julia,  Caesar's 
daughter,  but  she  died,  and  enmity  sprang  up  between  the  two 
men.  At  the  time  when  Caesar  was  establishing  the  domina- 
tion of  Rome  in  Gaul  (52  B.C.),  Pompey,  finding  himself  alone 
on  account  of  the  death  of  Crassus,  tried  to  attain  the  ascend- 
ency. The  revolt  caused  by  the  death  of  Clodius,  a  notorious 
politician,  was  quelled  by  Pompey,  who,  although  illegally, 
had  been  re-elected  consul.  This  placed  him  in  alliance  with 
the  senatorial  party,  who  understood  very  well  that  Caesar 
was  their  natural  enemy,  and  relied  upon  Pompey,  whose 
command  in  Spain  was  continued  for  five  years  (50  b.c). 
Caesar  desired  the  consulship  for  the  next  year.  The  law 
required  the  candidate  to  appear  in  person.  As  Caesar  would 
have  been  obliged  to  give  up  his  proconsular  command  to 
present  himself,  the  triumvirs  had  agreed  on  previous  occa- 
sions that  he  could  offer  himself  as  candidate  without  leaving 
his  province.  On  this  occasion  Pompey  asserted  that  such  a 
privilege  was  illegal.  In  49  b.c.  the  senate  ordered  Caesar  to 
give  up  his  command;  he  declared  himself  the  champion  of 
the  constitution,  put  his  army  in  motion,  and  crossed  the 
Rubicon.  Pompey,  taken  by  surprise,  without  an  army,  took 
refuge  in  Thessalonica,  where  he  established  the  seat  of  a 
new  government.  Caesar  obtained  the  consulship  and  the 
dictatorship,  and  then  turned  his  attention  to  Pompey.  He 
finally  defeated  him  at  Pharsalus.  Pompey  escaped  to  Egypt, 
and  was  beheaded  (48  b.c).     (See  Julius  Caesar.) 

1.  Claudius.  Emperor,  41-54  a.d.  Claudius  was  a  brother 
of  Oermanicus,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  after  the  death 


66  ROMAN  HISTORY 

of  Caligula.  His  character  was  weak,  but  his  reign  was  bene- 
ficial to  the  country.  He  built  a  new  harbor  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tiber,  repaired  the  aqueducts,  and  conquered  the  southern 
part  of  England.  Unfortunately,  he  was  led  "by  two  wicked 
women,  —  his  first  wife,  Messalina,  and  his  niece,  Agrippina, 
whom  he  married  after  Messalina's  death.  Claudius  died, 
poisoned  by  Agrippina,  who  wanted  the  throne  for  Nero,  her 
son  by  a  previous  marriage. 

2.  Claudius,  A'ppius.  A  member  of  the  Decemvirate  (450  B.C.). 
By  his  tyranny  he  caused  the  downfall  of  the  decemvirs. 

3.  Claudius,  A'ppius  (Caecus).  Censor,  310  b.c.  Under  his 
administration  the  Appian  Aqueduct  was  constructed,  and 
the  Appian  Way,  a  military  road  from  Rome  to  Capua,  was 
opened. 

4.  Claiidius  G6thicus.  The  first  lllyrian  emperor  (268-270 
A.D.),  succeeded  by  Aurelian ;  his  reign  was  unimportant.  He 
died  of  the  plague. 

5.  Claudius,  Publius.  Roman  consul,  defeated  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians at  the  naval  battle  of  Drepana,  in  the  First  Punic 
War  (243  b.c). 

6.  Claiidius  Niro,  Gaius.  A  Roman  consul  who  won  the  vic- 
tory at  the  Metaurus,  where  Hasdrubal  was  killed  (207  b.c). 

Cleopatra.  Queen  of  Egypt,  restored  to  her  throne  by  Julius 
Caesar  (47  b.c),  who  would  undoubtedly  have  married  her  had 
the  senate  sanctioned  the  passage  of  a  law  permitting  it. 
When  Mark  Antony  received  the  government  of  the  East,  he 
joined  Cleopatra.  She  killed  herself  shortly  after  the  defeat 
of  Antony  at  Actium  (31  b.c). 

Clients.  Serfs  of  the  gens ;  free,  but  without  legal  or  polit- 
ical rights.  Each  client  was  represented  by  a  patrician  head 
of  a  family,  called  his  patron. 

Cloaca  Maxima.  The  great  sewer  of  Rome,  constructed  under 
the  Tarquins. 

Clovis.     See  Franks. 

Cliisium.  The  chief  city  of  Etruria.  Its  king,  Porsena, 
attacked  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  Tarquins 


ROMAN   HISTORY  67 

on  the  throne,  and  was  at  first  victorious,  but  was  defeated  at 
Lake  Kegillus. 

Coelian  Hill.  One  of  the  hills  of  Eome,  upon  which  Tullus 
Hostilius  settled  the  conquered  inhabitants  of  Alba  Longa. 

C611ine  Gate.     See  Sulla. 

Colosseum.  The  immense  amphitheater  of  Rome,  begun 
under  Vespasian,  finished  by  Titus,  and  dedicated  in  80  a.d. 

Comitia  Centuriata.  An  assembly  composed  of  all  citizens, 
patricians  and  plebeians,  for  voting  upon  questions  of  public 
interest. 

Comitia  Curiata.  An  assembly  composed  of  the  citizens  bear- 
ing arms,  who  voted  by  curies.  Each  curia  voted  by  itself, 
and  the  majority  of  the  curies  decided  the  question. 

Comitia  Tribiita.  An  assembly  composed  of  patricians,  who 
elected  the  consuls. 

Comitium.  An  inclosed  space  near  the  Forum,  used  for 
public  assemblies. 

Commercium.    The  right  given  to  plebeians  to  hold  property. 

C6mmodus.  Emperor,  180-193  a.d.  He  succeeded  his  father 
Marcus  Aurelius.  He  was  entirely  unfit  to  reign  and  was 
finally  murdered. 

C6nstans.  Son  of  Constantine  the  Great.  He  had  a  share 
in  the  government  after  his  father's  death,  but  died  within  a 
few  years  (350  a.d.). 

1.  Constantine  the  Great.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  on  the 
death  of  his  father  Constantius  Chlorus  (306  a.d.),  but  was 
opposed  by  Maximian  and  Maxentius.  The  former  was  put 
to  death  by  Constantine  in  310  a.d.,  Maxentius  was  defeated 
at  the  battle  of  the  Mulvian  Bridge,  and  Constantine  became 
sole  emperor  of  the  West.  Licinius,  who  married  Constan- 
tine's  sister,  governed  the  East.  War  broke  out  between  them, 
Licinius  was  defeated  and  killed  in  his  prison,  and  Constantine 
remained  sole  emperor  (323  a.d.).  He  adopted  Christianity 
as  the  state  religion  and  took  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus. 
In  325  A.D.  he  presided  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea.  Shortly 
after,  he  put  his  own  son  Crispus  to  death,  prompted  to  do  so, 


68  ROMAN   HISTORY 

it  is  supposed,  by  Fausta,  his  second  wife,  who  wanted  to  be 
sure  of  the  throne  for  her  two  sons.  Constantine  divided  the 
empire  into  four  praefectures :  Gaul,  Italy,  Illyricum,  and  the 
East;  these  were  governed  by  praetorian  praefects,  directly 
under  the  command  of  the  emperor.  Constantine  transferred 
the  capital  from  Rome  to  Byzantium,  which  he  named  Con- 
stantinople (328  A.D.).  He  died  in  337  a.d.,  leaving  his  empire 
to  his  three  sons,  Constans,  Constantine,  and  Constantius^ 
joining  with  them  in  the  government  their  cousins  Dalmatius 
and  Hannibalianus,  who  were  soon  murdered. 

2.  C6nstantine.     Son  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

3.  C6nstantine  the  Usurper.  A  common  soldier,  made  em- 
peror by  the  troops  of  Britain,  who  were  dissatisfied  with 
Honorius  (407  a.d.).  For  four  years  he  ruled  Britain  and 
Gaul,  and  induced  the  Vandals  to  pass  into  Spain.  He  was 
overthrown   by   Constantius,  when  Athaulf   settled   in   Gaul 

(312  A.D.). 

1.  Constantius  Chlorus.  Western  Caesar  under  Diocletian, 
whom  he  succeeded ;  father  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

2.  Constantius.  Emperor,  337-360  a.d.  Son  of  Constantine 
the  Great.  He  reigned  alone  after  the  death  of  his  two 
brothers  and  the  murder  of  his  two  cousins.  He  divided  the 
government  with  Julian,  who  was  the  real  ruler. 

3.  Constantius.  A  favorite  officer  of  Honorius,  who  overthrew 
Constantine  the  Usurper  (412  a.d.).  He  married  Placidia,  sister 
of  Honorius,  after  having  been  the  instrument  of  her  first  hus- 
band's death.  (See  Athaulf.)  Constantine  was  the  father  of 
Valentinian  III. 

C6nsul.  The  chief  magistrate  of  Rome.  He  was  elected  for 
one  year  and  had  the  power  of  a  king,  subject  to  the  right  of 
appeal  to  the  people  in  criminal  cases.  During  his  term  of 
office  the  consul  wore  the  purple  robe  and  used  the  curule 
chair;  he  was  preceded  by  the  lictors  with  their  axes  and 
bundles  of  rods  (fasces). 

Coniibium.  The  right  given  to  the  plebeians  to  intermarry 
with  the  patricians. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  69 

C6rinth.  A  city  of  Greece  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name. 
Flamininus,  the  victor  of  Cynoscephalae,  convened  at  Corinth 
a  congress  of  the  Greek  states  and  declared  Greece  free  from 
Macedonian  rule.  (See  Achaean  League.)  Corinth  was  de- 
stroyed by  order  of  the  Roman  senate  in  146  B.C. 

Cornelius.    The  gentile  name  of  Cinna,  Sulla,  and  the  Scipios. 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinius.  A  wealthy  Roman,  who  acquired 
his  fortune  by  buying  the  confiscated  property  of  the  victims 
of  Sulla's  proscriptions.  He  subdued  the  insurrection  of 
Spartacus.  He  was  elected  consul  with  Pompey  (70  b.c),  and 
with  the  latter  overthrew  the  principal  part  of  Sulla's  consti- 
tution. In  60  B.C.,  at  the  time  of  the  First  Triumvirate,  Crassus 
received  the  government  of  Syria.  He  was  killed  near  Carrhae, 
in  Parthia,  during  the  revolution  led  by  Orodes  (55  B.C.). 

Crispus.     See  1.  Constantino. 

Ciiria.  The  name  given  to  the  municipal  senate  in  the  last 
years  of  the  empire.  It  was  composed  of  rich  citizens  called 
curiales. 

Ciirius  Dentatus,  Manius.  The  Roman  consul  who  ended  the 
war  with  the  Samnites  (290  B.C.),  and  subdued  the  Sabines. 
During  his  censorship,  the  second  Roman  aqueduct  was  built. 
He  also  won  the  battle  of  Beneventum  against  Pyrrhus 
(275  B.C.). 

Cynosc^phalae.  A  range  of  hills  in  Thessaly,  where  Flami- 
ninus won  a  victory  over  Philip  V.  of  Macedon  (197  B.C.). 


Dacia.  The  territory  north  of  the  Danube.  It  became  a 
Roman  province  under  Trajan ;  was  abandoned  to  the  Goths 
by  Aurelian;  and  was  occupied  by  the  Ostrogoths  after  the 
death  of  Attila. 

Danube.     See  Augustus,  Aurelian,  and  Visigoths. 

Dec6mvirate.  A  commission  of  ten  patricians,  called  decern- 
viri,  elected  for  one  year  to  codify  the  laws  of  Rome  on  the 
model  of  those  of  Athens.     The  work  not  being  completed  the 


70  ROMAN  HISTORY 

first  year,  a  second  decern virate  was  formed,  three  members 
being  plebeians.  Their  work  was  known  as  the  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables.  The  decemvirs  had  control  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  when  the  year  was  over  they  refused  to  resign  their 
office.  They  were  compelled  to  abdicate  and  were  put  to 
death  (451-448  b.c). 

1.  D6cius.  Emperor,  249-251  a.d.  He  persecuted  the  Chris- 
tians and  was  killed  in  battle  against  the  Goths. 

2.  Dicius  Mus,  Piiblius.  A  Roman  consul  who  sacrificed  his 
life  in  order  to  assure  the  victory  of  his  troops  at  Sentinum, 
in  the  Third  Samnite  War  (295  B.C.). 

Delators.  These  informers  were  specially  active  under  the 
emperor  Tiberius,  and  the  delatio  became  a  way  of  pursuing 
private  enmities.  The  system  was  at  its  height  under  Domi- 
tian. 

Dentatus.     See  Curius. 

Dictator.  A  patrician  magistrate,  appointed  for  six  months 
by  the  consul  in  case  of  public  danger. 

Didius  Julianus.  A  senator  who  offered  to  buy  the  throne 
left  vacant  by  the  murder  of  Pertinax,  promising  to  renew  the 
licentiousness  of  the  reign  of  Commodus.  He  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  senate  when  Septimius  Severus  was  recognized 
as  emperor  (193  a.d.). 

Diocletian.  Emperor,  284-305  a.d.  The  impracticability 
of  governing  alone  the  extensive  empire  composed  of  mixed 
nationalities  was  very  apparent,  and  Diocletian  divided  the 
administration  with  a  colleague  called  "  Augustus,"  reserving 
for  himself  the  East,  with  his  capital  at  Nicomedia,  and  giving 
his  associate  Maximian  the  West,  with  his  capital  at  Milan. 
After  a  time  each  "  Augustus "  had  an  associate  called 
*' Caesar,"  who  succeeded  him.  Diocletian  reorganized  the 
army  and  removed  the  military  command  from  the  governors 
of  the  provinces,  giving  it  to  officers.  Under  his  administra- 
tion the  land  tax,  heretofore  paid  only  by  the  Italian  provinces, 
but  not  by  Italy  proper,  was  enforced  on  all.  Under  Diocle- 
tian a  persecution  of  the  Christians,  ordered  by  him,  took 


ROMAN  HISTORY  71 

place  (303  a.d.).  He  abdicated  witli  Maximinian  in  305  a.d., 
leaving  the  empire  in  the  hands  of  Galerius  in  the  East,  and 
Constantius  Chlorus  in  the  West. 

Domitian.  Emperor,  81-96  a.d.  The  sixth  Flavian  emperor, 
and  brother  of  Titus,  whom  he  succeeded.  His  character  was 
cruel  and  tyrannical.  He  renewed  the  delations  of  Tiberius. 
(See  Delators.)  He  regulated  the  question  of  the  German 
frontier  by  building  fortified  posts. 

Drepana.  A  city  on  the  western  coast  of  Sicily,  where  the 
Romans  lost  a  naval  battle  against  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
First  Punic  War  (249  B.C.). 

1.  Dnisus.  Stepson  of  Augustus.  By  his  campaigns  on 
the  Danube  he  contributed  to  the  extension  of  the  Roman 
dominions  in  that  section,  organizing  it  as  the  provinces  of 
Raetia  and  Noricum.  He  died  in  9  b.c.  while  engaged  in 
extending  the  empire  east  of  the  Rhine. 

2.  Dnisus.     Son  of  Tiberius,  murdered  by  order  of  Sejanus. 

3.  Dnisus,  Marcus  Livius.     See  Italian  Question. 

Duilius,  Gaius.  The  Roman  commander  in  the  battle  of 
Mylae  (260  e.g.).  He  was  rewarded  for  his  victory  by  the 
erection  of  a  column  in  his  honor,  adorned  with  the  beaks  of 
captured  vessels  (coliimria  rostrata). 

Dyrrachium.  A  city  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum,  where  Caesar 
sustained  a  defeat  from  the  hands  of  Pompey's  adherents  just 
before  Pharsalus. 

£ 

East  Goths.     See  Goths. 

Egypt.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies,  Egypt  was  an  ally 
of  Rome.  It  became  a  Roman  province  under  Augustus,  after 
the  battle  of  Actium  and  the  death  of  Cleopatra.  Zenobia, 
Queen  of  Palmyra,  attempted  to  include  it  in  her  dominions, 
but  was  defeated  by  Aurelian. 

Elagabalus.  Emperor,  218-222  a.d.  A  cousin  of  Caracalla, 
and  priest  of  the  sun-god  Elagabalus  in  Syria.  His  mother 
called  him  Antoninus  and  passed  him  for  a  son  of  Caracalla. 


72  ROMAN  HISTORY 

He  defeated  Macrinus,  killed  him,  and  was  recognized  as 
emperor.  He  was  one  of  the  most  corrupt  and  vicious  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  and  was  murdered  after  a  reign  of  four 
years. 

E'nnius,  Quintus.  A  distinguished  poet  who  lived  about 
220  B.C.,  the  author  of  satires,  dramas,  and  epic  poems. 

E'rcte.  A  mountain  near  Panormos  in  northern  Sicily,  where 
the  Romans  were  defeated  by  Hamilcar  (247  e.g.). 

E'squiline.     The  highest  of  the  hills  of  Rome. 

Etruria  (modern  Tuscany).  The  territory  between  the  Arno 
and  the  Tiber,  in  northwestern  Italy.  From  it  came  the 
dynasty  of  the  Tarquins,  the  last  kings  of  Rome.  Its  chief 
towns  were  Clusium,  Veii,  and  Yolsinii,  all  bitter  enemies  of 
Rome.  Their  power  declined  with  the  growth  of  Rome  and 
especially  after  the  capture  of  Veii.  (See  Clusium,  Regillus, 
Veii,  Camillus,  Ciminian  Forest,  Third  Samnite  War,  Sentinum.) 
Etruria  was  invaded  by  Hannibal  in  217  b.c. 

Eud6xia.  Widow  of  Yalentinian  III.  She  refused  the  hand 
of  Maximus,  her  husband's  murderer,  called  Gaiseric  to  aid 
her,  and  thus  caused  the  sack  of  Rome  (455  a.d.). 

Eiimenes.  King  of  Pergamus.  He  helped  the  Romans  in 
the  Asiatic  War  (190  b.c).  In  the  Macedonian  campaign  he 
remained  neutral. 

Euphrates.  A  river  of  Asia  Minor,  the  frontier  of  Mithra- 
dates'  empire. 

Eiiric.  King  of  the  Visigoths,  after  Ricimer.  He  enlarged 
his  territory  over  the  region  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Loire, 
then  took  from  Odovacar  the  lands  between  the  Rhone  and  the 
Alps.  His  capital  was  at  Aries.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
Pyrenees  he  conquered  nearly  all  Spain  (475-480  a.d.). 

F 

Fabian  Gens.  An  important  patrician  gens,  numbering  about 
three  hundred,  who  undertook,  with  their  own  resources,  a  war 
against  Veii,  about  478  B.C. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  73 

1.  Fabius  Maximus,  Quintus.  The  Roman  consul  who  defeated 
the  Etruscans  at  the  Ciminian  Forest  (310  b.c),  and  the  Sam- 
nites  at  Sentinum  (295  e.g.). 

2.  Fabius  Maximus,  Quintus.  A  Roman  dictator,  grandson 
of  1.  Fabius,  surnamed  Cunctator  (the  Delayer),  as  he  always 
avoided  pitched  battles  with  Hannibal,  but  harassed  him  with 
his  system  of  ambuscades  and  short  engagements  (217  e.g.). 

Fabricius,  Gaius.  A  statesman  and  diplomatist,  a  contem- 
porary of  Curius  Dentatus.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  against  Pyrrhus. 

Fasces      The  bundle  of  rods  carried  by  the  lictor. 

Faiista.     Wife  of  Constantine  the  G-reat. 

Fetiales.  Heralds  who  performed  the  ceremonies  connected 
with  the  declaration  of  war. 

Fidenae.  An  Etruscan  town,  the  outpost  of  Yeii,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tiber,  captured  by  the  Romans  in  426  e.g. 

Flamininus,  Titus  Quinctius.  The  consul  who  won  the  battle 
of  Cynoscephalae  against  Philip  V.  of  Macedon. 

Flaminius,  Gaius.  A  tribune  who  put  into  effect  an  Agrarian 
Law  by  which  the  lands  of  the  Gauls  were  distributed  among 
Roman  citizens.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Trasi- 
menus  (217  e.g.). 

FoBderati.  Allies  of  Rome,  who  were  given  lands  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  empire,  but  were  recognized  as  independent 
nations,  under  certain  treaty  provisions. 

Forum.  The  market  place  in  the  valley  between  the  Pala- 
tine and  Quirinal  Hills.  In  it  the  praetors  held  court  until 
Cato  urged  the  building  of  the  Basilica  Porcia  (184  e.g.).  In 
time  the  Forum  ceased  to  be  a  market  place,  and  became  the 
center  of  the  commercial  and  social  life  of  Rome.  The  Rostra, 
or  speaker's  stand,  was  moved  from  the  Comitium  to  the 
Forum. 

Franks.  An  association  of  Germanic  tribes  who  made  their 
appearance  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  Alamannians 
(220-240  A.D.)  and  settled  on  the  lower  Rhine.  During  the 
reign   of    Gallienus,    they   crossed   Gaul   and   entered   Spain. 


74  ROMAN  HISTORY 

They  joined  the  Alamannians  and  were  defeated  by  Julius  at 
Strassburg  (357  a.d.).  They  settled  in  the  west  of  the  empire. 
At  the  Battle  of  the  Peoples,  the  Eipuarian  Franks  (from  the 
Ehine)  joined  Attila,  but  the  Salian  Franks  (from  the  Nether- 
lands) sided  with  the  Romans.  The  power  of  the  Franks  was 
finally  established  under  Clovis  (481  a.d.),  who  ended  the 
Roman  power  in  Gaul  by  the  overthrow  of  Syagrius,  son  of 
Aegidius. 

Furius.     See  Camillus. 


Gabii.  A  city  belonging  to  the  Volscian  territory  on  the 
Tuscan  Sea,  added  to  the  Ager  Romanus  under  Tarquinius. 

Gaiseric  or  Genseric  (428-477  a.d.).  King  of  the  Vandals, 
summoned  from  Spain  into  Africa  by  Boniface.  lie  was  then 
summoned  to  Rome  by  Eudoxia,  and  took  and  plundered  the 
city.  He  was  defeated  in  a  naval  battle  off  the  coast  of 
Corsica  by  Ricimer,  and  held  in  check  by  Majorian,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Maximus.  Gaiseric  became  master  of  the  western 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  islands  of  northern  Africa. 
After  his  death  (477  a.d.)  his  empire  lost  its  importance. 

Gaius.  The  official  title  of  the  emperor  Caligula.  (See 
Caligula.) 

Galba.  Governor  of  Spain  under  Nero.  He  proclaimed 
himself  emperor  on  account  of  Nero's  neglect  of  the  empire, 
and  especially  the  insurrection  of  Vindex  in  Gaul.  Galba 
succeeded  Nero  in  6S  a.d.,  but  was  soon  murdered  by  the 
praetorians. 

Galerius.     Diocletian's  successor  in  the  East  (305-306  a.d.). 

Gallienus.  Emperor,  260-268  a.d.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
the  emperor  Valerian,  at  a  critical  period.  His  empire  was 
attacked  on  all  sides,  by  the  Germans,  Franks,  Persians,  and 
Goths.  Gallienus  formed  an  alliance  with  Odenatus,  king  of 
Palmyra,  who  defended  the  frontier  against  Sapor  of  Persia. 
Odonatus  was  murdered  (237  a.d.),  and  his  widow,  Zenobia, 
succeeded  him.     Gallienus  was  murdered  in  268  a.d. 


ROMAN   HISTORY  75 

Gauls.  An  intruding  nation  of  Celtic  race,  crossed  the  Alps 
during  the  fourth  century  e.g.,  took  possession  of  the  valley 
of  the  Po,  and  expelled  the  Etruscans.  Their  territory  was 
called  Cisalpine  Gaul.  In  390  b.c.  they  attacked  Clusium,  an 
ally  of  Rome,  defeated  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of  the  Allia, 
and  captured  Rome.  They  helped  the  Etruscans,  Umbrians, 
and  Samnites  in  their  wars  against  the  Romans,  They  were 
finally  subdued  by  Caesar  (52-50  b.c).  (See  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
Transalpine  Gaul.) 

Gens.  The  name  given  to  family  groups,  or  clans.  Each 
clan  was  composed  of  several  families  under  the  authority  of 
the  paterfamilias,  who  was  invested  with  full  power  over  his 
wife  and  children.     The  members  were  called  patricians. 

Germanicus.  The  adopted  son  of  the  emperor  Tiberius. 
His  father  was  Drusus,  the  general  of  Augustus.  He  married 
Agrippina,  the  granddaughter  of  Augustus,  became  governor 
of  Gaul  and  Germany,  and  was  given  the  government  of  the 
East.  He  died  suddenly.  Piso,  his  first  officer,  was  suspected 
of  having  poisoned  him  (19  a.d.). 

Germans.  German  tribes,  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons,  invaded 
Italy,  and  were  at  first  victorious,  but  they  were  repulsed  by 
Marius  and  Catulus  at  Aquae  Sextiae  and  at  the  Raudian 
Fields,  near  Yercellae.  An  unsuccessful  insurrection  of  Mar- 
comani,  or  German  frontiersmen,  took  place  in  180  a.d.  Under 
Gallienus  they  traversed  Gaul,  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and 
entered  Spain,  pillaging  the  country.  Aurelian  built  walls  or 
advanced  forts  to  keep  them  in  check.  Julian  defeated  them 
at  Strassburg  (357  a.d.).  "  Germans  "  is  a  general  term  for 
Franks,  Alamannians,  Vandals,  Goths,  and  Visigoths.  They 
succeeded  in  settling  all  over  the  empire.  (See  Alaric,  Athaulf, 
Gaiseric,  Rhadagais,  and  Stilicho.) 

Geta.  Emperor,  211-212  a.d.  Brother  of  Caracalla,  who 
reigned  with  him,  but  was  murdered  by  him  after  one  year. 

Goths.  Hordes  of  barbarians  who  invaded  Dacia  under 
Aurelian.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  branches :  Ostro- 
goths or  East  Goths,  and  Visigoths  or  West  Goths.    Forced  by 


76  ROMAN   HISTORY 

the  Huns  to  leave  their  province,  they  asked  the  Romans  for 
shelter,  and  Valens  gave  them  the  Balkan  peninsula.  The 
treachery  of  the  Roman  praefects  caused  a  revolt  of  the  Goths, 
who  defeated  and  killed  Valens  at  Adrianople  (378  a.d.). 
Theodosius  pacified  them ;  he  gave  the  Visigoths  Dacia,  south 
of  the  Danube ;  Phrygia  in  Asia  Minor  was  assigned  to  the 
Ostrogoths.  They  were  considered  allies  or  foederati.  In 
395  A.D.,  Alaric  was  king  of  the  Visigoths ;  he  invaded  Greece 
and  gradually  made  his  way  into  Italy,  where  he  was  defeated 
at  Pollentia  and  Verona  by  Stilicho.  Athaulf,  brother-in-law 
of  Alaric,  succeeded  him ;  he  treated  with  Honorius,  brought 
back  the  Goths  to  Gaul,  but  was  forced  to  go  to  Spain  by 
order  of  Constantius  (first  officer  of  Honorius),  and  was  mur- 
dered shortly  afterward.  (See  Athaulf.)  Wallia,  his  brother, 
brought  the  Visigoths  back  to  Gaul;  they  became  foederati^ 
were  given  land  in  the  south  of  Gaul,  and  soon  extended  their 
dominion  into  Spain. 

1.  Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius.  Tribune  of  the  Plebs 
(187  B.C.).  While  tribune,  he  defended  the  Scipios  against 
their  assailants,  and  afterwards  married  Cornelia,  daughter  of 
Scipio  Africanus.  He  became  praetor,  governor  of  Spain, 
consul,  and  censor. 

2.  Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempr6nius.  Son  of  1.  Gracchus  and 
Cornelia.  Gracchus  served  in  the  army  and  showed  great 
courage  at  the  siege  of  Numantia  in  Spain.  Upon  his  return 
to  Rome  he  wished  to  revive  the  Licinian  Laws,  which  were 
no  longer  enforced,  and  thus  relieve  the  poor  classes.  He 
slightly  altered  the  laws,  and,  as  tribune,  forced  the  passage 
of  the  bill.  This  exasperated  the  patricians,  and  he  was  killed 
(133  B.C.). 

3.  Gracchus,  Gaius.  Brother  of  2.  Gracchus.  His  aim  was 
to  overthrow  the  nobility  and  reform  the  senate.  He  also 
attempted  to  enforce  his  brother's  laws,  and  amplified  them. 
As  the  public  lands  in  Italy  were  almost  all  occupied,  he  offered 
to  establish  colonies  in  the  provinces,  and  founded  one  on  the 
ruins  of  Carthage,  called  Junonia.     At  the  next  election  for 


ROMAN  HISTORY  77 

tribune  he  was  defeated.  The  next  year  Gracchus  and  his 
followers  were  attacked  and  defeated  by  the  consul  Lucius 
Opimius  on  the  Aventine,  and  Gracchus  was  killed  (121  b.c). 

Gratian.  Emperor,  375-383  a.d.  Son  of  Yalentinian  I., 
emperor  of  the  West.  He  was  a  good  prince  and  an  orthodox 
Christian.  In  376  a.d.  he  promulgated  a  law  forbidding  all 
heretic  sects  to  exercise  their  religion.  Gratian  was  the  first 
Roman  emperor  who  laid  aside  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus. 
He  was  murdered,  and  was  succeeded  by  Theodosius. 

Great  Mother.  Cybele,  the  mother  of  the  gods,  was  brought 
from  Phrygia  to  Rome,  as  prescribed  by  the  Sibylline  Books, 
to  save  Italy  from  Hannibal's  invasion. 


Hadrian.  Emperor,  117-138  a.d.,  successor  of  Trajan. 
Hadrian  concentrated  his  efforts  on  strengthening  the  Roman 
power,  and  on  its  internal  development.  He  built  a  line  of 
fortifications  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway,  near  the  modern 
frontier  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Hamilcar  Barca.  A  celebrated  Carthaginian  general  in  the 
Punic  Wars,  and  father  of  Hannibal.  Hamilcar  defeated  the 
Romans  at  Mount  Ercte  near  Panormos,  Sicily,  and  died  during 
his  campaign  in  Spain  (228  b.c). 

Hannibal.  Son  of  Hamilcar  Barca.  He  defeated  the  Romans 
commanded  by  the  consuls  Publius  Scipio  and  Sempronius  at 
Placentia  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  at  the  river  Ticinus,  and  at 
the  Trebia,  in  218  b.c.  Hannibal  invaded  Etruria  (217  b.c), 
and  defeated  Flaminius  at  Lake  Trasimenus,  and  the  consul 
Varro  at  Cannae  (216  b.c).  After  the  latter  victory  he  retired 
with  his  army  to  Capua.  Hannibal  was  now  at  the  height  of 
his  glory.  The  city  of  Tarentum  was  won  over  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians through  treachery  (213  b.c).  Through  Hannibal's 
policy  the  Romans  were  drawn  into  the  First  Macedonian  War 
against  Philip  V.  The  Romans  regained  Syracuse,  which  had 
embraced  the  Carthaginian  cause,  after  the   death  of  King 

HAND.  GK.  &  ROM.  HIST. 6 


78  ROMAN  HISTORY 

Hiero,  and  recaptured  Capua  and  Tarentum.  Hasdrubal,  Han- 
nibal's brother,  was  defeated  and  killed  in  the  battle  of  the 
Metaurus  against  the  Eoman  consuls  Gains  Nero  and  Marcus 
Livius  (207  b.c).  Hannibal  himself  was  finally  defeated  at 
Zama  by  Scipio  Africanus  (202  b.c).  Hannibal  returned  home, 
attended  to  the  financial  affairs  of  Carthage,  and,  fearing  that 
he  might  be  taken  by  the  Romans,  retired  to  Syria,  where  he 
staid  at  the  court  of  Antiochus  until  the  defeat  of  his  host  by 
the  Romans  at  Magnesia.  Then  he  took  refuge  at  the  court 
of  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia.  He  poisoned  himself  to  avoid 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  (183  b.c). 

Hasdrubal.  Brother  of  Hannibal.  He  fought  the  Romans  in 
Spain  and  was  defeated  by  Publius  Scipio,  son  of  the  consul 
who  was  wounded  at  the  river  Ticinus.  Hasdrubal  crossed 
the  Pyrenees  to  help  Hannibal  in  Italy.  He  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  the  battle  of  the  Metaurus  (207  b.c). 

Helvetians.  The  inhabitants  of  Helvetia,  modern  Switzer- 
land, whom  Caesar  defeated  in  58  b.c,  thus  hindering  them 
from  settling  in  southwestern  Gaul. 

Heraclea.  A  city  on  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum,  the  site  of  the 
first  victory  of  Pyrrhus  over  the  Romans  (280  b.c). 

Herculaneum.  A  city  of  southern  Italy,  destroyed,  with 
Pompeii,  by  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  in  79  a.d.  Among 
the  victims  was  Pliny  the  Elder,  the  naturalist.  The  ruins 
were  found  in  1755. 

Herd6nius,  A'ppius.  A  Sabine  nobleman  who,  with  a  band  of 
followers,  took  possession  of  the  citadel  of  Rome  (460  b.c). 
This  act  was  occasioned  by  the  dissatisfaction  caused  by  the 
Terentilian  Laws.     Herdonius  perished  with  his  party. 

Hiero.  King  of  Syracuse,  and  ally  of  Rome  at  the  time  of  the 
revolt  of  the  Mamertines.  He  died  in  215  b.c  ;  his  successor 
sided  with  the  Carthaginians.     (See  Mamertines,  Hannibal.) 

Hon6res.  The  right  given  the  plebeians  to  hold  magistracies. 
(See  Licinian  Laws.) 

Hon6rius.  Son  of  Theodosius  and  emperor  of  the  West  (395- 
423  A.D.).     During  his  reign  great  barbarian  invasions  took 


ROMAN  HISTORY  79 

place.  Alaric,  leading  the  Visigoths  of  the  Danube,  invaded 
Greece.  Rufinus  was  hostile  to  Stilicho,  the  minister  of 
Honorius,  and  advised  Alaric  to  march  into  Italy,  where 
Stilicho  defeated  him  at  Pollentia  and  Verona  (402-403  a.d.), 
and  compelled  him  to  leave  Italy.  The  Vandal  invasion  of 
Gaul  was  caused  by  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  army  of  Britain, 
who  chose  as  emperor  Constantine  the  Usurper,  and  he  received 
the  government  of  Britain  and  Gaul.  He  induced  the  Vandals 
to  go  to  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  enemies  of  Stilicho  prevailed 
upon  Honorius  to  have  him  beheaded  in  408  at  Ravenna.  In 
408  A.D.  Alaric  again  invaded  Italy,  and  appeared  at  the  gates 
of  Rome  and  captured  it  by  famine.  The  next  year  Alaric 
again  took  the  city  and  pillaged  it  (409-410  a.d.).  Constantine 
was  overthrown  by  Constantius,  who  married  Honorius'  sister 
Placidia.     (See  Athaulf.) 

Horace  (Quintus  Horatius  Flaccus).  A  famous  Latin  poet  of 
the  Augustan  age  (64-7  b.c). 

Hortensian  Laws.  The  dictator  Quintus  Hortensius  proposed 
these  laws,  giving  the  plebeian  assembly  the  power  to  pass  laws 
valid  for  all  citizens.  This  was  a  step  toward  relieving  the 
condition  of  the  peasants,  who  suffered  greatly  from  prolonged 
wars. 

Huns.  Barbarians  of  the  Tartar  race  who  invaded  the  Goths' 
dominions  in  376  a.d.  (see  Goths),  and  forced  them  to  ask 
shelter  on  Roman  territory.  Valens  assigned  to  them  a  part 
of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  The  governors  of  that  province  were 
dishonest,  the  supplies  promised  were  not  given,  and  the  Goths 
revolted  and  killed  Valens  at  Adrianople.  The  Huns,  led  by 
Attila,  reappeared  in  large  numbers  about  444  a.d.  ;  they 
crossed  the  Rhine,  entered  Gaul  as  far  as  the  Loire,  and 
attacked  Orleans;  but  Aetius  and  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Visigoths,  forced  them  to  retreat,  and  they  were  completely 
defeated  at  the  Battle  of  the  Peoples  (451  a.d.).  The  Huns 
returned  the  next  year  by  way  of  the  Julian  Alps,  invaded 
Italy,  and  destroyed  Aquileia.  Attila  established  his  residence 
at  Milan,  and  died  there  in  453  a.d. 


80  ROMAN  HISTORY 


Iberians.  A  people  of  ancient  Spain.  They  joined  the 
Carthaginian  armies.  They  occupied  Aquitania  or  southern 
Gaul  and  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Basques. 

Illyricum  (modern  lUyria).  The  region  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Rome  made  war  on  its  pirates.  During 
the  Macedonian  Wars  it  was  made  a  Roman  province.  Caesar 
governed  it  together  with  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

Italian  Question.  The  Italian  allies  claimed  the  right  of 
citizenship,  but  were  refused,  and  an  insurrection  ensued.  The 
tribune  Drusus  and  the  orator  Crassus  supported  the  cause  of 
the  Italians,  but  Crassus  died  suddenly  and  Drusus  was  assassi- 
nated. The  insurrection  went  on.  The  Italian  allies,  wishing 
to  found  a  new  capital  instead  of  Rome,  selected  Corfinium  in 
the  center  of  the  peninsula;  this  was  the  beginning  of  the 
Social  War.  Of  course,  the  Roman  armies,  led  by  Metellus 
Pius  and  other  experienced  chiefs,  were  too  well  drilled  for 
the  Confederacy,  which  was  defeated  after  a  struggle  of  two 
years.  What  should  have  been  done  at  the  beginning  was 
done  at  the  end.  The  Julian  law,  proposed  by  the  consul 
Lucius  Caesar,  gave  citizenship  to  all  who  had  remained 
loyal  (90  B.C.),  and  the  Papirian  law  gave  the  same  privi- 
lege to  those  who  promised  allegiance.  The  emperor  Cara- 
calla  granted  the  right  demanded  in  212  a.d. 


Janiculum.  A  hill  belonging  to  Rome's  territory  and  a 
protection  against  Etruscan  invasions.  It  was  joined  to  Rome 
by  the  Sublician  Bridge. 

Jerusalem.  Jerusalem  was  conquered  by  Pompey  in  64  b.c, 
and  was  destroyed  by  Titus  in  70  a.d.  The  Jews  revolted 
again  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (132  a.d.),  and  a  Roman 
colony  called  Aelia  Capitolina  was  established  on  the  ruins  of 
Jerusalem. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  81 

J6vian.  Emperor,  363-364  a.d.,  successor  of  Julian.  His 
reign  of  one  year  was  uneventful. 

Jugiirtha.  King  of  Numidia,  grandson  of  Masinissa.  Jugur- 
tha  obtained  the  throne  by  murdering  his  cousins.  The 
Romans  wished  to  punish  him  and  war  was  declared  in 
112  B.C.  For  three  years  nothing  was  done  on  account  of 
corruption  among  the  Roman  chiefs,  but  in  109  b.c.  the  com- 
mand was  given  to  Quintus  Caecilius  Metellus,  and  some 
progress  was  made.  A  young  officer  of  Metellus,  Gains  Marius, 
was  made  consul  and  received  the  command  instead  of  Metellus 
(107  B.C.).  The  next  year  Jugurtha  was  made  prisoner  by 
Sulla,  an  officer  of  Marius'  army,  and  was  taken  to  Rome  and 
executed. 

Julian.  Emperor,  360-363  a.d.  He  was  the  cousin  of  Con- 
stantius  II.,  who  chose  him  for  his  "Caesar."  He  was  able 
and  energetic,  and  restored  order  in  the  Western  provinces 
which  he  governed.  He  repulsed  an  invasion  of  the  Alaman- 
nians  and  defeated  them  at  Strassburg  (357  a.d.).  He  is 
known  as  Julian  the  Apostate  because  he  reestablished  pagan- 
ism. He  ordered  no  persecution,  but  simply  did  all  he  could 
to  discourage  the  Christian  religion  among  his  subjects.  He 
undertook  a  campaign  against  Sapor  II.  of  Persia,  crossed  the 
Euphrates,  opened  a  canal  to  the  Tigris,  and  routed  Sapor's 
army  (363  a.d.).  Julian  was  killed  on  the  return,  and  Jovian, 
his  first  officer,  succeeded  him. 

Julian  Law.  This  law  gave  the  citizenship  to  the  Italian 
allies  who  remained  loyal  during  the  Social  War.  (See  Italian 
Question.) 

Julius  Caesar.     See  Caesar. 

Junonia.  A  city  founded  by  C.  Gracchus  on  the  ruins  of 
Carthage  (122  b.c).     It  became  a  Roman  colony. 

Jus  auxilia.  The  power  given  to  the  tribunes  to  protect 
debtors  and  citizens  against  the  undue  severity  of  the  consul 
or  the  quaestor. 

Jus  exili.  The  right  given  to  the  Latin  colonies  to  coin 
money  and  give  shelter  to  Roman  exiles. 


82  ROMAN  HISTORY 

Jus  imaginum.  An  act  which  allowed  a  consul  to  place  in 
his  house  waxen  masks  of  his  ancestors  as  tokens  of  nobility. 

Juvenal.  A  Roman  satirist  of  the  Silver  Age,  or  reign  of 
Trajan. 


Latin  Colonies.  Military  posts,  such  as  the  posts  on  the 
Volscian  frontier,  established  by  the  allied  powers  for  protec- 
tion. A  Roman  who  took  up  his  residence  in  a  colony  lost  his 
Roman  citizenship. 

Latin  Confederacy.     See  Latium. 

Latin  War.     See  Latium. 

Latins.  One  of  two  principal  races  of  Italy  occupying  the 
territory  south  of  the  Tiber.     Rome  was  a  Latin  city. 

Latium.  The  plain  south  of  Tiber,  between  the  Apennines 
and  the  sea,  now  known  as  Campagna.  It  became  the  strong- 
hold of  the  Latin  Confederacy,  and  its  chief  city.  Alba  Longa, 
was  taken  by  Rome.  Between  the  First  and  Second  Samnite 
Wars,  the  Confederacy  became  jealous  of  Rome  and  rebelled. 
This  uprising  is  known  as  the  Latin  War.  It  ended  with  the 
dissolution  of  the  Confederacy,  and  the  enlargement  of  Rome's 
territory  in  338  b.c. 

Lipidus,  Marcus  -ffimilius.  Caesar's  master  of  the  horse 
(second  in  command  to  the  dictator).  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Second  Triumvirate,  but  being  incompetent  he  gradually 
disappeared  from  the  political  scene. 

Licinian  Laws.  They  were  enacted  by  the  tribune  Gains 
Licinius  Stolo  (367  b.c.)  to  protect  the  plebeians,  and  were 
formulated  as  follows : 

1st.   One  of  the  two  consuls  must  be  a  plebeian. 

2d.  The  board  of  magistrates  having  charge  of  the  Sibylline 
Books  must  be  composed  of  patricians  and  plebeians. 

3d.  The  interest  paid  by  debtors  was  to  be  deducted  from 
the  principal,  the  balance  to  be  paid  in  three  years. 

4th.  It  gave  the  plebeians  the  use  of  the  public  lands,  but 
they  were  not  allowed  to  occupy  more  than  250  acres. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  83 

5tli.  The  public  pasture  was  restricted  to  100  heads  of  large 
cattle,  and  500  heads  of  small  cattle,  such  as  sheep. 

6th.  A  limited  number  of  slaves  was  allowed  in  the  work- 
ing of  large  estates,  but  the  rest  of  the  labor  was  to  be  done 
by  free  artisans. 

Licinius.  A  Dacian  peasant,  proclaimed  governor  of  the 
West  by  the  emperor  Galerius  in  307  a.d.  He  became  emperor 
of  the  East  with  Maximin,  while  Constantine  governed  the 
West  (311  A.D.).  Maximin  was  defeated  by  Licinius  at 
Adrianople  and  died  in  313  a.d.  Licinius  murdered  the  fami- 
lies of  all  his  opponents  and  became  sole  emperor  of  the  East. 
He  married  Constantine's  sister.  A  war  with  Constantine  fol- 
lowed, which  was  ended  by  a  treaty  of  peace ;  but  in  a  second 
war  Licinius  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  brother-in-law,  who  had 
him  strangled  in  prison  (314  a.d.). 

Licinius  Crassus.     See  Crassus. 

Licinius  Lucullus.     See  LucuUus. 

Lictor.  A  Eoman  officer  who  preceded  the  consul.  His 
badge  of  office  was  the  fasces. 

Lilybseum.  A  Carthaginian  town  of  western  Sicily.  It 
was  attacked  by  the  Romans  during  the  First  Punic  War 
(249  B.C.). 

Livy  (Titus  Livius).    A  Latin  historian  of  the  Augustan  age 

(59  B.C.-19  A.D.). 

Lucania.  A  region  of  southern  Italy  between  the  Tuscan 
Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum.  The  Lucanians  remained 
faithful  to  Rome  during  the  Third  Samnite  War. 

Liiceres.  One  of  the  three  original  Roman  tribes.  (See 
Ramnes  and  Titles.) 

Lucretius  Carus,  Titus.  One  of  the  greatest  Latin  poets 
(about  99-55  e.g.). 

Lucullus,  Lucius  Licinius.  A  typical  Roman  nobleman,  rich 
and  luxurious.  He  was  brave  and  skillful  in  war,  but  too 
arrogant  to  gain  his  soldiers'  confidence.  He  commanded 
against  Mithradates  (74  b.c). 

Lutatius  Catulus.     See  Catulus. 


84  ROMAN   HISTORY 


M 


Macedonian  Wars.  The  First  War  (213  b.c.)  was  brief  and 
without  importance.  It  arose  because  Hannibal  made  a  treaty 
with  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  and  the  Romans  had  to  protect 
their  rights.  The  Second  War  was  simply  a  renewal  of  the 
first,  as  the  Romans  were  anxious  to  extend  their  dominions  in 
the  East.  Philip  V.  was  the  ally  of  Antiochus  the  Great  of 
Syria,  and  the  Achaeans  and  Aetolians  sided  with  Rome. 
Before  the  conflict,  Antiochus  deserted  Philip,  who  was 
defeated  by  Flamininus  at  Cynoscephalae  (197  b.c).  Greece 
was  declared  independent  and  free  from  Macedonian  rule. 
Philip  signed  the  peace.  In  179  b.c.  Philip  died,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son  Perseus,  who  declared  himself  against  Rome. 
The  Rhodians,  former  allies  of  Rome,  remained  neutral. 
Eumenes,  also  a  friend  of  the  Romans,  gave  no  support. 
Hostilities  were  renewed  in  the  Third  War  (172  b.c).  The 
Romans,  led  by  Aemilius  Paulus,  defeated  Perseus  at  Pydna, 
and  took  him  prisoner  (168  b.c).  Macedon  was  divided  into 
four  provinces  under  Rome's  protectorate.  In  146  b.c  it 
became  a  Roman  province  after  an  insurrection  led  by  an 
impostor  who  passed  himself  for  a  son  of  Perseus. 

Macrinus.  Commander  of  the  praetorian  guard,  who  mur- 
dered Caracalla  (217  a.d.)  and  took  the  throne.  He  reigned 
less  than  one  year,  and  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Elagabalus, 
cousin  of  Caracalla. 

Maecenas,  Gains  Cilnius.  A  counselor  of  Augustus.  He  took 
no  active  part  in  politics,  but  protected  arts  and  letters,  and 
became  the  patron  of  Horace  and  Vergil.     He  died  9  a.d. 

Magna  Graecia.  The  Greeks  established  colonies  in  the  south 
and  west  of  Italy  as  early  as  the  eighth  century  b.c  The 
colonies  were  rich  and  prosperous  and  the  region  was  called 
Great  Greece.     The  chief  city  was  Tarentum. 

Magnesia.  A  city  in  western  Asia  Minor  where  the  Romans, 
commanded  by  Lucius  Scipio  Asiaticus,  defeated  Antiochus  in 
190  B.C.     (See  Asiatic  War.) 


KOMAN  HISTORY  85 

Maj6rian.  One  of  the  emperors  of  the  West.  He  made  a 
firm  stand  against  the  Vandals  (457-461  a.d.).  He  was  put 
to  death  through  the  influence  of  Count  Ricimer.  Aegidius 
was  his  military  governor  in  Gaul. 

Mamertines.  A  body  of  Campanians  forming  a  part  of  the 
mercenary  troops  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse.  They  revolted 
in  271  B.C.  and  took  the  city  of  Messana,  although  the  Syra- 
cusans  and  Carthaginians  tried  to  protect  it.  The  Mamertines 
asked  help  of  Rome,  which  Rome  granted,  and  thus  brought 
about  the  Punic  Wars.  Hiero  signed  an  alliance  with  Rome 
in  264  B.C. 

1.  Manlius,  Marcus.  A  Roman  who  defended  the  capitol 
against  the  Gauls  (390  B.C.).  It  is  said  that  the  soldiers  guard- 
ing the  capitol  were  awakened  by  the  cackling  of  the  sacred 
geese  kept  for  the  worship  of  Juno. 

2.  Manlius,  Marcus.  A  leader  of  the  rebel  forces  at  the  time 
of  Catiline's  conspiracy  (63  b.c). 

Marcellus,  Claudius.  Leader  of  the  Roman  forces  at  the 
siege  of  Syracuse  and  captor  of  the  city  (212  b.c). 

Marcomani.  Powerful  tribes  whose  territory  was  Bohemia 
and  Bavaria.  They  were  allies  of  the  Romans  during  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  but  under  Marcus  Aurelius  they  became 
hostile  and  advanced  upon  the  Adriatic  coast  as  far  as  Aquileia. 

Marcus  Aurelius.     See  Aurelius. 

1.  Marius,  Gaius.  A  peasant  of  Arpinum  in  Latium.  He 
was  an  officer  in  the  army  of  Metellus  in  the  expedition 
against  Jugurtha.  He  was  made  consul  and  given  the  com- 
mand instead  of  Metellus.  The  war  ended  with  the  defeat 
and  imprisonment  of  Jugurtha.  Marius  defeated  the  German 
hordes,  the  Teutons,  at  Aquae  Sextiae  in  102  b.c.  The  next 
year,  with  his  colleague,  the  consul  Catulus,  he  defeated  the 
Oimbri  at  the  Raudian  Pields  near  Yercellae.  He  reorganized 
the  army.  Marius  was  an  uneducated  man  and  was  led  by 
unscrupulous  men  like  the  tribune  Saturninus  and  the  praetor 
Glaucia;  he  was  elected  consul  for  the  sixth  time,  and  the 
three   men   attempted  to   control   the   government   of  Rome. 


86  ROMAN   HISTORY 

The  nobility  took  arms  and  defeated  the  reformers  at  a  battle 
in  the  Forum;  Saturninus  and  Glancia  were  murdered,  and 
Marius  fell  into  disgrace.  The  Mithradatic  war  broke  out,  and 
the  chief  command  was  given  to  the  consul  Sulla.  The 
attempt  of  Sulpicius  and  the  popular  party  to  give  Marius  the 
command  brought  about  civil  war.  Sulla  marched  upon  Rome 
and  defeated  his  opponents.  Marius  escaped  and  took  refuge 
in  the  marshes  of  Minturnae  on  the  coast  of  Latium,  south  of 
Rome ;  from  there  he  went  to  the  ruins  of  Carthage  (88  b.c). 
In  87  B.C.  a  rupture  took  place  between  the  two  consuls, 
Octavius  and  Cinna,  who  were  of  opposite  parties,  and  Cinna 
was  defeated  in  a  battle  in  the  Forum.  He  rallied  his  forces, 
called  Marius  to  his  aid,  and  they  entered  Rome  as  victors. 
They  then  inaugurated  a  massacre  which  lasted  five  days, 
during  which  time  the  enemies  of  Marius  perished  in  large 
numbers,  among  them  Catulus,  his  old  colleague  of  the  Cimbric 
war.  The  next  year  (86  b.c.)  Marius  was  made  consul  for  the 
seventh  time,  and  died  shortly  after. 

2.    Marius,  Gaius.     Son  of  the  above.     (See  Sulla.) 

Martial  (Marcus  Valerius  Martialis).  A  brilliant  Latin  writer 
of  epigram  (40-102  a.d.). 

Masinissa.  King  of  Numidia.  He  helped  the  Romans 
against  the  Carthaginians  at  Zama  (202  b.c).  He  caused  the 
Third  Punic  War  by  picking  a  quarrel  with  Carthage  (152  b.c), 
and  died  three  years  after. 

Massilia  (modern  Marseilles).  A  Greek  city  of  southern 
Gaul  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone.  It  was  captured  by  Caesar 
in  49  B.C.,  but  remained  a  free  republic,  nominally  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  Rome. 

Max^ntius.     See  Constantine. 

Maximian.  Emperor  of  the  West  while  Diocletian  governed 
the  East.  He  abdicated,  but  appeared  in  politics  again  and 
was  murdered  by  Constantine  (310  a.d.). 

1.  Maximin.  Emperor,  235-238  a.d.  He  succeeded  Alex- 
ander Severus,  whom  he  had  murdered.  He  killed  himself  in 
238  A.D. 


ROMAN   HISTORY  87 

2.  Maximin.  Emperor  of  the  East  with  Licinius  (311  a.d.). 
He  was  defeated  by  Licinius  at  Adrianople  in  313  a.d.,  and 
died  the  same  year. 

Maximus.  The  murderer  of  Valentinian  III.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  emperor  in  455  a.d.  He  wished  to  marry  Eudoxia, 
Valentinian's  widow;  she  refused,  and  summoned  Gaiseric, 
king  of  the  Vandals,  who  took  and  plundered  Rome.  Maxi- 
mus was  deposed  the  following  year  and  was  succeeded  by 
Majorian. 

Mazdeism.  The  religion  of  Zoroaster,  the  early  faith  of 
Persia.  It  recognized  a  continual  contest  in  the  government 
of  the  world  between  Ormuzd,  the  good  god,  and  Ahriman,  the 
wicked. 

Mediolanum  (modern  Milan).  A  city  of  northern  Italy  and 
capital  of  the  Western  Empire  under  Diocletian.  When 
Ravenna  was  made  the  capital,  Milan  was  chosen  as  the  mili- 
tary center.  Attila  occupied  it  as  his  residence  about  one  year 
after  the  Battle  of  the  Peoples. 

Messalina.  The  first  wife  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  a  wicked 
and  dissolute  woman.     She  was  killed  in  48  a.d. 

Messana.  A  city  of  northeastern  Sicily,  seized  by  the 
Mamertines  (264  B.C.). 

Metaiirus.  A  river  of  southern  Cisalpine  Gaul,  emptying 
into  the  Adriatic  Sea.  There  the  Roman  consuls  Nero  and 
Livius  defeated  and  killed  Hasdrubal  (206  b.c). 

1.  Metellus,  Quintus  Caecilius  (Numidicus).    See  Jugurtha. 

2.  Metellus,  Quintus  Caecilius  (Pius).  Son  of  the  above.  He 
took  part  in  the  Social  War,  joined  Sulla  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  was  sent  against  Sertorius. 

3.  Metellus,  Quintus  Caecilius  (Scipio).  Leader  of  the  Repub- 
lican party  with  Cato ;  defeated  by  Caesar  at  Thapsus  (46  b.c). 

Mintiirnae.  A  town  on  the  Tuscan  Sea,  south  of  Rome, 
where  Marius  took  refuge. 

Mithradates  VI.  King  of  Pontus  in  Asia  Minor.  Desiring 
to  take  the  Roman  territory  adjoining  his  kingdom,  which  had 
been  left  to  the  Romans  by  Attains  III.,  king  of  Pergamus, 


88  ROMAN   HISTORY 

Mithradates  put  to  death  the  Roman  governor  and  massacred 
a  large  number  of  Romans.  Rome  declared  war  and  gave  the 
command  to  Sulla,  who  defeated  Mithradates,  and  compelled 
him  to  give  up  his  conquest  and  to  pay  an  indemnity  (88  B.C.). 
This  ended  the  First  Mithradatic  War.  Mithradates  renewed 
hostilities  with  Murena,  the  successor  of  Sulla  in  the  Roman 
province,  but  this  campaign  was  without  result,  although  it  is 
called  the  Second  Mithradatic  War  (83  e.g.).  A  treaty  was 
signed,  but  Mithradates  broke  it  in  74  e.g.  and  again  threatened 
the  Roman  power  in  Asia.  LucuUus  was  intrusted  with  the 
command,  and  gained  several  victories,  but  nothing  decisive 
was  done.  In  67  e.g.  Pompey  marched  against  Mithradates 
and  defeated  him.  The  major  part  of  his  dominions  became  a 
Roman  province.     He  was  killed  by  his  own  son. 

Mucianus.  A  governor  of  Syria,  who  was  sent  by  Vespasian 
to  overthrow  Vitellius,  66  a.d. 

Miicius  Scsevola.     See  Scaevola. 

Mulvian  Bridge.  A  bridge  over  the  river  Tiber  where  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  defeated  his  rival  Maxentius  and  had  his 
body  thrown  into  the  river  (312  a.d.).  This  victory  allowed 
Constantine  to  become  sole  emperor  of  the  West. 

Miimmius,  Lucius.     The  destroyer  of  Corinth. 

Miinda.  An  ancient  city  of  southern  Spain,  where,  in  45  e.g., 
Julius  Caesar  defeated  Gnaeus  and  Sextus,  the  sons  of  Pompey. 

Mus.     See  Decius  Mus. 

Miitina  (modern  Modena).  A  city  northwest  of  Rome  where 
Decimus  Brutus  defeated  Antony  just  before  the  formation  of 
the  Second  Triumvirate  (43  e.g.). 

Mylae.  A  city  of  northeastern  Sicily,  the  scene  of  the  first 
important  battle  of  the  First  Punic  War.  The  Romans,  com- 
manded by  Duilius,  were  victorious  (260  e.g.). 

N 

1.  Nero.     See  Claudius. 

2.  N6ro  Claudius,  Tiberius.  Second  and  last  of  the  Claudian 
emperors  (54-68  a.d.).     He  succeeded  Claudius,  although  he 


ROMAN  HISTORY  89 

had  no  right  to  the  throne,  as  Britannicus,  son  of  Claudius  and 
Messalina,  was  the  rightful  heir;  but  Agrippina,  second  wife 
of  Claudius,  forced  him  to  recognize  Nero,  her  son  by  a  pre- 
vious marriage,  as  his  successor.  The  first  four  years  of  his 
reign  were  fall  of  promise,  as  he  was  guided  by  the  philosopher 
Seneca,  and  also  by  Burrhus,  the  praetorian  praefect.  But  it 
was  not  long  before  his  wickedness  showed  itself.  He  fell  in 
love  with  Poppaea  Sabina,  neglected  his  wife  Octavia  and  put 
her  to  death.  Britannicus  died  by  his  order.  Seneca  was 
supplanted  by  Tigellinus,  a  freedman,  and  murdered;  and 
Nero's  own  mother  Agrippina  was  put  to  death.  Under  the 
influence  of  Tigellinus,  Nero's  vices  developed  wonderfully. 
He  was  believed  to  have  caused  the  fire  of  Rome  in  64  a.d., 
but  he  accused  the  Christians  of  being  the  incendiaries  and 
commenced  a  persecution.  Rome  was  rebuilt.  In  68  a.d.  an 
insurrection,  led  by  Vindex,  broke  out  in  Gaul,  and  Galba, 
governor  of  Spain,  proclaimed  himself  emperor.  Verginius, 
governor  of  North  Germany,  supported  the  insurrection.  The 
senate  declared  Nero  to  be  an  enemy  of  his  country  and  con- 
demned him  to  death ;  he  escaped  and  took  refuge  in  a  f reed- 
man's  house,  but  when  he  heard  the  soldiers  he  ordered  the 
freedma^n  to  kill  him  (68  a.d.). 

Nerva.  Emperor,  96-98  a.d.  Nerva  was  chosen  as  successor 
to  Domitian  by  the  senate,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  He 
selected  Trajan  to  succeed  him. 

Nicaea.  A  city  of  Asia  Minor  near  Nicomedia,  west  of 
Bithynia,  where  the  great  council  of  Nicaea  was  held  in 
325  A.D.  It  was  presided  over  by  Constantine  as  Pontifex 
Maximus,  to  decide  the  following  religious  controversy :  Was 
Christ  of  the  same  nature  as  the  Father,  or  not  ?  Athanasius 
was  for  the  affirmative  and  Arius  for  the  negative.  The 
emperor  sided  with  the  party  of  Athanasius,  whose  views  thus 
became  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  church. 

Nicomedia.  A  city  of  Bithynia  which  Diocletian  made  the 
capital  of  the  East,  and  there  established  his  residence.  It 
ceased  to  be  the  capital  under  Constantine. 


90  ROMAN   HISTORY 

Niima  Pompilius.  A  man  of  Sabine  origin  who  became  king 
after  Komulus.  He  has  the  reputation  of  having  organized 
religious  institutions. 

Numidia.  A  province  of  northern  Africa  (modern  Algeria). 
Its  king,  Masinissa,  helped  the  Romans  at  Zama  (202  b.c).  His 
grandson  Jugurtha  was  made  prisoner  by  Sulla  and  put  to 
death,  and  Numidia  became  a  Roman  province. 


1.  Octavia.  Sister  of  Octavian.  She  married  Antony,  who 
divorced  her  on  account  of  his  infatuation  for  Cleopatra. 

2.  Octavia.  Wife  of  the  emperor  Nero,  who  had  her  put  to 
death. 

Octavian.     See  Augustus. 

Odenatus.  King  of  Palmyra.  He  was  an  ally  of  Rome 
against  Sapor  of  Persia.  He  was  assassinated  and  left  the 
throne  to  his  wife  Zenobia  (267  a.d.).     (See  Gallienus.) 

Od6vacar  (Odoacer).  Chief  of  the  barbarian  soldiers  of  Italy. 
He  headed  a  revolt  to  secure  a  division  of  lands  among  the 
soldiery,  overthrew  Romulus  Augustulus,  and  governed  Italy 
under  the  authority  of  Zeno,  the  Eastern  emperor.  He  be- 
came possessor  of  lands  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Loire,  but 
was  forced  to  abandon  them  to  Euric,  king  of  the  Visigoths 
(480  A.D.).  He  was  overthrown  and  murdered  by  Theodoric 
(493  A.D.). 

Optimates.  The  party  of  the  nobility,  formed  during  the 
administration  of  Gracchus,  and  opposed  to  the  Populares,  or 
party  of  the  common  people. 

O'rmuzd.     See  Mazdeism. 

Or6des.  King  of  Parthia.  He  led  the  revolution  which 
caused  the  death  of  his  brother  Mithradates  III.,  thus  securing 
the  throne  for  himself.  The  triumvir  Crassus  interfered  with 
Orodes  and  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Carrhae. 

O'stia.  An  important  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber 
founded    by    Ancus    Marcius.      The    emperor    Claudius    con- 


ROMAN  HISTORY  91 

structed  a  new  harbor,  as  the  old  one  had  become  valueless  on 
account  of  the  accumulations  of  earth  and  sand. 

O'strogoths.     See  Goths. 

O'tho.  A  dissolute  companion  of  Nero,  made  emperor  by 
the  praetorians  after  the  assassination  of  Galba.  The  army 
of  lower  Germany  revolted  and  proclaimed  Vitellius,  who 
attacked  Otho  at  Placentia  and  defeated  him.  Otho  slew 
himself. 

O'vid  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso).  A  poet  of  the  Golden  Age, 
author  of  the  Metamorphoses  (42  B.0.-I8  a.d.). 


Padus  (modern  Po).  A  river  of  northeastern  Italy,  flowing 
in  the  basin  between  the  Alps  and  the  northern  Apennines, 
and  emptying  into  the  Adriatic. 

Palatine.  One  of  the  hills  of  Rome,  the  site  of  the  original 
city. 

Palmyra.  A  city  of  Arabia  destroyed  by  Aurelian.  (See 
Zenobia.) 

Paris  (Lut^tia  Parisi6rum).  The  chief  town  of  the  Parisii,  on 
the  Seine.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  emperor  Julian  and  of 
Aegidius  and  Syagrius. 

Parthia.  The  Parthian  Empire  in  eastern  Asia  Minor  was  a 
part  of  the  great  empire  of  the  Seleucidae.  After  the  death 
of  Antiochus,  Mithradates  the  Great  conquered  as  far  west 
as  the  Euphrates,  which  separated  Parthia  from  the  Roman 
dominions.  In  54  b.c.  a  revolution  broke  out  in  Parthia,  and 
Mithradates  III.  was  dethroned  and  murdered.  His  brother 
Orodes  succeeded  him.  The  triumvir  Crassus,  anxious  to  rival 
Caesar,  started  for  the  East  with  an  army,  but  lost  his  life  at 
the  battle  of  Carrhae  (53  b.c).  Trajan  invaded  Parthia  and 
conquered  the  part  known  as  Mesopotamia,  but  Hadrian  aban- 
doned it.  In  226  A.D.  the  Parthian  Empire  was  completely 
overturned  and  replaced  by  the  Persian  Empire. 

Pater  Familias.     See  Gens. 


92  ROMAN  HISTORY 

Patricians.  The  patricians  were  the  members  of  the  first 
families  of  Rome  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  gentes. 
At  first  they  had  all  the  political  power  (see  Comitia  Centuriata). 
The  opposite  social  party  was  that  of  the  plebeians,  the  people 
of  the  conquered  Latin  towns.  They  had  but  few  rights  at 
first,  but  their  condition  was  gradually  modified  by  the  Com- 
mercium,  the  Conubium,  the  Canuleian  Law,  and  the  Agrarian 
Laws. 

Paiilus.     See  .ffimilius. 

Pergamus.     See  Asiatic  War  and  Attalus  III. 

Perseus.  Son  of  Philip  V.  of  Macedon.  He  lost  the  battle 
of  Pydna  and  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Romans  (168  b.c). 

Persius  (Aiilus  P^rsius  Flaccus).  A  Latin  satirist  of  the  reign 
of  Nero  (34-62  a.d.). 

Pirtinax.  Emperor  for  the  first  three  months  of  193  a.d. 
He  was  then  murdered. 

Pharnaces.  King  of  Pontus,  and  son  of  Mithradates.  He 
opposed  Caesar,  but  was  defeated  in  47  b.c. 

Pharsalus.  A  city  of  Thessaly  where  Caesar  defeated 
Pompey  in  48  b.c. 

Philip  V.  A  powerful  king  of  Macedonia  (221  to  179  b.c), 
and  son  of  Demetrius.  He  ruled  over  a  large  portion  of 
Greece.  In  213  b.c.  he  made  a  treaty  with  Hannibal,  which 
caused  the  First  Macedonian  War.  Philip  was  defeated  by 
the  Romans,  led  by  Flamininus,  at  Cynoscephalae  in  197  b.c. 
(See  Macedonian  and  Asiatic  Wars.) 

Philippi.  A  city  of  Macedonia  where  Octavian  and  Antony 
defeated  Brutus  and  Crassus  (42  b.c). 

Philo.     See  Publilius  Philo. 

Picenum.  A  large  territory  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  annexed  by 
Rome  after  the  battle  of  Sentinum  (295  b.c). 

Piso.     See  Calpurnius. 

Placentia.  A  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  Po.  It  was  the 
base  of  Hannibal's  operations  in  the  Second  Punic  War. 
There  Vitellius  defeated  Otho  in  69  a.d. 

Placidia.     Mother  of  Valentinian  III.     (See  Athaulf.) 


ROMAN  HISTORY  93 

Plaiitus,  Titus  Maccius  (254-184  B.C.).     A  Latin  writer  of 
comedy.     Of  his  plays,  twenty  have  been  preserved. 
Plebeians.     See  Patricians. 

1.  Pliny  the  Elder  (Gains  Plinius  Secundus  Maior).  A  famous 
encyclopedic  writer,  and  author  of  the  monumental  Historia 
Naturalis,  in  thirty-seven  books.  Pliny  perished  in  the  erup- 
tion of  Vesuvius. 

2.  Pliny  the  Younger  (Gains  Plinius  Caecilius  Seciindus  Minor). 
Nephew  of  Pliny  the  Elder,  by  whom  he  was  adopted.  His 
extant  works  are  the  Panegyricus  (a  eulogy  on  Trajan)  and  the 
ten  books  of  his  Epistles.  Nothing  is  known  as  to  the  date  or 
manner  of  his  death. 

Po.     See  Padus. 

PoUtoia.  A  city  of  northwestern  Italy,  where  Alaric  was 
defeated  by  Stilicho  (402  a.d.). 

Pompeii.     See  Herculaneum. 

1.  Pompeius  Magnus,  Gnaeus  (Pompey  the  Great).  Pompey 
was  one  of  the  followers  of  Sulla  and  was  sent  against 
Sertorius;  on  his  return  he  met  the  remnants  of  the  army 
of  Spartacus,  defeated  them  (71  b.c),  and  reaped  the  laurels 
which  really  belonged  to  Crassus  (see  Spartacus).  Pompey 
was  elected  consul  with  Crassus  in  70  b.c.  ;  they,  with  M.  Pius, 
overthrew  the  principal  parts  of  Sulla's  constitution.  Pompey 
was  granted  the  power  to  act  against  the  pirates  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  He  was  victorious  and  conquered  Cilicia, 
southwest  of  Pontus,  which  became  a  Roman  province,  with 
the  island  of  Cyprus  (67  b.c).  Then  Pompey  turned  his 
attention  to  Mithradates  VI.  and  forced  him  north  of  the 
Euxine,  where  he  was  killed  by  his  own  son.  This  ended  the 
Third  Mithradatic  War  (65  b.c).  Pompey  made  Syria  a 
Roman  province,  meeting  with  no  resistance  except  at  Jeru- 
salem, which  he  captured,  and  returned  to  Rome  in  64  b.c 
He  formed  with  Julius  Caesar  and  Crassus  the  First  Trium- 
virate. He  became  Caesar's  enemy  (see  2.  Civil  War)  and 
escaped  to  Thessalonica,  where  he  established  a  rival  govern- 
ment.    He  was  defeated  at  Pharsalus  in  48  b.c  and  escaped 

HAND.  GK.  &  ROM.  HIST.  —  7 


94  ROMAN  HISTORY 

to  Egypt,  where  lie  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Ptolemy's 
ministers.  His  sons,  Gnaeus  and  Sextus,  were  defeated  by 
Caesar  at  Mimda  (45  B.C.). 

2.  Pompeius,  Sextus.  Brother  of  Pompey  the  Great.  He 
perished  during  the  Second  Triumvirate  (35  e.g.). 

Pons  Sublicius.  A  bridge  over  the  Tiber,  connecting  Mount 
Janiculum  with  Rome. 

P6ntifex  Maximus.  The  head  of  the  Roman  religion.  The 
title  was  bestowed  upon  Caesar,  was  held  by  Constantine  and 
his  followers,  and  was  relinquished  by  Gratian. 

P6ntius,  Gaius.  A  Samnite  general  who  captured  the  Romans 
at  the  Caudine  Forks  during  the  Second  Samnite  War  (321  b.c). 

P6ntus.  A  state  of  northern  Asia  Minor  on  the  Pontus 
Euxinus  (Black  Sea).  One  of  its  rulers  was  Mithradates  VL, 
the  famous  enemy  of  the  Romans,  who  was  defeated  by  Pom- 
pey in  65  B.C. 

Populates.  The  party  of  the  people,  formed  during  the 
administration  of  Gracchus  and  opposed  to  the  Optimates. 

P6rsena,  Lars.     See  Clusium. 

Postumius,  Aulus.  One  of  the  early  dictators  of  Rome.  He 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Aequians  and  Volscians  at 
Mount  Algidus,  and  recovered  this  important  position  (431 
B.C.).  It  is  said  of  him  that  he  had  his  own  son  put  to  death 
for  disobeying  orders  on  the  battlefield. 

Prefects.  Three  magistrates  created  at  the  beginning  of 
Octavian's  reign.  One  had  charge  of  the  supplies  of  corn. 
The  second  was  a  municipal  officer  who  had  charge  of  the  city. 
The  third  commanded  the  emperor's  bodyguard,  the  praetorian 
cohort,  and  was  called  praetorian  praefect. 

Praetor.  The  office  of  praetor  was  created  by  the  Licinian 
Laws  (367  b.c),  when  the  administration  of  civil  justice  was 
transferred  from  the  consul  to  the  new  magistrate,  who  must 
be  a  patrician.  The  number  of  praetors  under  Sulla's  laws  was 
increased  to  eight. 

Propertius,  Stous  Aurelius.  An  elegiac  poet  of  the  reign  of 
Augustus. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  95 

Proscription.  A  system  instituted  by  Sulla,  under  which 
lists  of  his  enemies  were  posted  each  morning.  Those  whose 
names  appeared  on  these  lists  might  be  put  to  death  with 
impunity  by  any  one,  and  their  property  was  confiscated. 
About  5000  perished  in  Sulla's  proscriptions. 

Priisias.     See  Hannibal. 

Pt61emies.  A  royal  family  who  occupied  the  throne  of 
Egypt.  One  of  its  members  was  overthrown  by  his  sister, 
Cleopatra,  during  whose  reign  Pompey,  pursued  by  Caesar, 
fled  to  Alexandria  and  was  beheaded  (47  B.C.). 

Publilian  Laws.  These  were  three  laws  the  passage  of  which 
was  procured  by  the  plebeian  dictator  Quintus  Publilius  Philo 
(339  B.C.).  The  first  increased  the  power  of  the  plebeian 
assembly;  the  second  removed  from  the  patricians  the  right 
of  declaring  laws  unconstitutional ;  the  third  made  it  compul- 
sory that  one  of  the  two  censors  should  be  a  plebeian. 

Publilius  Philo.     See  Publilian  Laws. 

Punic  Wars.  Three  wars  between  the  Eomans  and  the  Car- 
thaginians. The  First  War  (264-241  b.c.)  was  caused  by  the 
revolt  of  the  Mamertines,  the  mercenary  troops  of  King  Hiero 
of  Syracuse,  who  rebelled,  seized  the  city  of  Messana,  and  se- 
cured the  support  of  the  Romans,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances 
of  Syracuse  and  Carthage.  This  brought  on  the  war.  The 
Romans  built  a  navy,  and  under  Gains  Duilius  won  the  battle 
of  Mylae  (260  b.c).  The  consul,  Marcus  Atilius  Regulus, 
carried  the  war  into  Africa,  and  was  at  first  victorious,  but  was 
afterwards  defeated  and  captured  by  the  Carthaginians.  The 
Romans  were  also  defeated  at  Lilybaeum  and  at  Mount  Ercte 
by  the  Carthaginian  general,  Hamilcar  Barca.  They  built  a 
new  navy  and  intrusted  it  to  Catulus,  who  defeated  the  Cartha- 
ginians at  the  Aegates  Islands  (241  b.c),  and  thus  ended  the 
first  war. 

The  Second  War  was  caused  by  the  seizure  of  Sardinia  and 
Corsica  by  Rome,  while  the  Carthaginians  were  suppressing 
the  mutiny  of  their  troops.  Hannibal,  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca, 
attacked  and  took  the  city  of  Saguntum  in  Spain,  an  ally  of 


96  ROMAN   HISTORY 

Rome  (219  b.c).  He  entered  Gaul  by  the  Pyrenees,  and 
crossed  the  Alps,  making  the  tribes  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  his 
allies.  The  Roman  army  was  defeated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Po  at  Placentia  and  at  the  Ticinus,  and  its  leader,  the  consul 
Publius  Scipio,  was  seriously  wounded  ;  his  colleague,  Sempro- 
nius,  took  the  command  and  sustained  a  defeat  at  the  Trebia. 
Hannibal  deceived  the  consul  Flaminius,  crossed  the  Apennines, 
placed  his  army  so  as  to  separate  Gains  Flaminius  from  Rome, 
and  defeated  him  at  Lake  Trasimenus  (217  b.c).  Flaminius 
perished  in  the  fight.  The  next  year  the  Romans  suffered 
their  greatest  defeat  at  Cannae.  The  army  commanded  by  the 
consul  Varro  was  completely  routed  and  nearly  annihilated. 
Hannibal  retired  to  Capua  (214  b.c).  In  212  b.c  the  Romans, 
led  by  Marcellus,  reconquered  Syracuse,  which  had  gone  back 
to  the  Carthaginians  after  King  Hiero's  death.  It  was  during 
this  siege  that  Archimedes  perished.  The  next  year  Capua 
and  Tarentum  were  retaken.  Hasdrubal,  brother  of  Han- 
nibal, was  defeated  in  Spain  by  Publius  Scipio,  and  the 
consul  Nero  defeated  and  killed  him  at  the  battle  of  the 
Metaurus  (206  b.c).  Scipio  Africanus  succeeded  in  subduing 
Spain,  and  aided  by  Masinissa,  king  of  Numidia,  finished  the 
war  by  the  complete  routing  of  Hannibal's  army  at  Zama 
(202  B.C.).  The  peace  gave  to  Rome  Spain  and  the  islands. 
Carthage  surrendered  nearly  all  her  war  vessels  and  paid  a 
heavy  indemnity. 

Third  War.  Rome  was  still  jealous  of  Carthage.  Cato  the 
Censor  advocated  its  destruction.  Masinissa,  the  ally  of  Rome, 
managed  to  have  some  difficulty  with  Carthage,  and  was  suc- 
cessful in  the  war  which  resulted.  The  Romans  seized  upon 
this  breach  of  the  treaty  of  peace  as  a  pretext  for  destroying 
their  rival.  The  Carthaginians  were  willing  to  settle  the  mat- 
ter amicably,  but  the  bad  faith  of  the  Romans  forced  them  to 
fight.  Scipio  Aemilianus  was  intrusted  with  the  siege  of  Car- 
thage.    The  city  was  taken,  pillaged,  and  burned  (146  b.c). 

Pydna.  A  city  of  Macedonia  where  Perseus  was  defeated  by 
the  Roman  commander,  Aemilius  Paulus  (168  b.c). 


ROMAN   HISTORY  97 

P^rrhus.  King  of  Epirus.  He  supported  the  Greek  colony 
of  Tarentum  in  its  war  against  Rome.  He  won,  with  great 
loss,  the  first  battle  at  Heraclea  (280  b.c.)  ;  then  he  sent  his 
ambassador,  Cineas,  to  treat  with  the  Romans,  who  refused. 
The  Italians  joined  Pyrrhus,  and  he  gained  a  victory  at  Ascu- 
lum  (279  B.C.).  Pyrrhus  left  Italy  to  defend  Syracuse  against 
the  Carthaginians.  Upon  his  return  to  Italy,  the  Romans,  led 
by  Manius  Curius  Dentatus,  routed  his  army  at  Beneventum 
(275  B.C.).    He  died  three  years  later  at  Argos. 


Quaestor.  At  first  this  magistrate  was  attached  to  the  person 
of  the  king  as  an  assistant,  then  to  that  of  the  consul.  After- 
wards he  had  charge  of  the  treasury  under  the  direction  of  the 
senate. 

1.  Quinctius.     See  Cincinnatus,  Flamininus. 

2.  Quinctius,  Keeso.     Son  of  Cincinnatus. 

Quintilianus,  Marcus  Fabius  (40-  about  95  a.d.).  The  most 
celebrated  Roman  rhetorician.  His  great  work,  the  Institutio 
Oratoria,  is  a  treatise  on  the  complete  training  of  an  orator. 

Quintilius.     See  Varus. 

Quirinal.  One  of  the  hills  of  Rome,  originally  a  Latin  settle- 
ment. 


Rsetia.  A  province  between  the  Alps  and  the  Danube,  con- 
quered by  Augustus. 

Ramnes.  One  of  the  three  original  tribes  of  Romans.  (See 
Luceres  and  Titles.) 

Ravenna.  An  Etruscan  town  in  northeastern  Italy  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  Western  Empire 
under  Honorius.     There  Stilicho  was  beheaded  (408  a.d.). 

Regillus,  Lake.  A  lake  of  the  Sabine  district,  twenty  miles 
east  of  Rome.  Near  its  shores  the  Romans  won  a  victory 
which  ended  the  war  with  Porsena  (496  b.c). 


98  ROMAN  HISTORY 

R^gulus,  Mdrcus  Atilius.  The  Roman  consul  who  took  the 
Roman  troops  to  Carthage  during  the  First  Punic  War ;  he  was 
at  first  victorious,  but  afterwards  he  met  with  a  defeat  and  was 
captured  (250  b.c). 

Repetundae,  Court  of.  This  court  was  established  by  the 
Gracchi  for  the  trial  of  provincial  governors ;  but  it  was  de- 
ficient, inasmuch  as  the  judges  and  governors  were  alike  mem- 
bers of  the  Senate.  The  system  was  changed  under  Sulla,  who 
gave  judicial  matters  to  the  praetors. 

Rhadagaisus  (Rhadagais).  An  Ostrogoth,  who  gathered  an 
army  of  Germans  and  invaded  Italy  by  the  Alps  and  reached 
Florence,  where  Stilicho  routed  him  (405  a.d.). 

Rhine.     See  Alamannians,  Ariovistus,  and  Franks. 

Rhodes.  A  large  island  near  the  southwestern  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  Rhodians  supported  Rome  against  Antiochus  in 
the  Second  Macedonian  War.  Rhodes  became  the  chief  mari- 
time power  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 

Ricimer.  A  Goth,  grandson  of  Wallia,  brother  of  Athaulf. 
He  was  invested  with  the  power  at  Rome  from  about  460  to 
472  A.D.  It  was  he  who  placed  Majorian  on  the  throne,  but 
had  him  murdered  (461  a.d.).  He  fought  Gaiseric,  king  of  the 
Vandals,  in  a  naval  battle  off  the  coast  of  Corsica,  and  held 
the  barbarian  invasion  in  check  for  some  time.  His  death 
occurred  in  472  a.d. 

Rome.  Ancient  Rome  was  situated  on  low  hills  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tiber  and  about  fifteen  miles  from  its  mouth.  It 
was  built  in  the  neighborhood  of  750  b.c. 

R6mulus.     The  mythical  founder  and  first  king  of  Rome. 

Romulus  Augiistulus.  The  last  of  the  emperors  of  the  West- 
ern Empire  after  Ricimer's  death  (472  a.d.).  During  his  reign 
an  uprising  of  the  barbarian  troops  of  Italy,  commanded  by 
their  king,  Odovacar,  took  place.  They  wanted  lands,  and 
refused  to  live  in  camps.  Romulus  was  removed,  and  Italy 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Odovacar  (477  a.d.). 

R6stra.  The  speaker's  stand  at  Rome.  It  was  thus  named 
because  when  the  port  of  Antium  was  converted  into  a  mari- 


ROMAN  HISTORY  99 

time  colony  of  Rome,  its  ships  were  destroyed  and  their  beaks 
(rostra)  were  sent  to  Rome  to  ornament  the  speaker's  stand 
situated  between  the  Comitium  and  the  Forum.  Under  Augus- 
tus it  was  moved  near  the  upper  end  of  the  Forum. 

Rubicon.  A  small  river  in  northeastern  Italy  emptying  into 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  Its  crossing  by  Caesar  began  the  Civil  War 
(49  B.C.). 

Rufinus.  Governor  of  the  Eastern  Empire  with  Arcadius, 
son  of  Theodosius.  He  induced  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths, 
to  invade  the  Western  Empire  (see  Stilicho).  He  was  mur- 
dered in  395  A.D. 

S 

Sabines.  A  branch  of  the  Umbro-Sabellians  whose  territory 
was  between  Latium  and  Umbria.  They  early  became  enemies 
of  Rome.  It  is  said  that  under  Romulus  they  were  invited  by 
the  Romans  to  the  harvest  festival,  and  that  during  the  cele- 
bration the  Romans  seized  the  Sabine  maidens  and  made  them 
their  wives.  The  Sabines  aided  the  Aequians  and  the  Vol- 
scians  in  their  war  against  Rome.  It  was  to  repulse  them  that 
Cincinnatus  was  made  dictator. 

Sacred  Mount.     See  Secession  of  the  Plebs. 

Sagiintum.  A  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Spain,  taken  by 
Hannibal  at  the  beginning  of  the  Second  Punic  War  (219  B.C.). 

Sallust  (Gaius  Sallustius  Crispus).  A  celebrated  Latin  his- 
torian (83-35  B.C.). 

Samnites.  A  branch  of  the  Umbro-Sabellians.  They  had 
three  wars  with  the  Romans.  The  first  war  ended  with  the 
fall  of  Capua,  which  became  a  Roman  possession  (343  e.g.). 
The  second  war  ended  with  the  capture  of  the  Roman  army  at 
the  Caudine  Forks,  and  a  great  victory  of  the  Samnites  led  by 
Pontius  (321  B.C.).  The  third  war  was  an  uprising  of  the 
Samnites,  Etruscans,  and  Umbrians,  supported  by  the  Gauls, 
against  Rome.  The  Roman  armies  were  led  by  Fabius 
Maximus  and  Decius  Mus.  The  principal  battle  was  fought 
at  Sentinum  in  295  b.c.    Fabius  defeated  the  Samnites j  Decius 


100  ROMAN  HISTORY 

Mus  battled  against  the  Gauls  and  sacrificed  his  life  to  assure 
the  victory. 

1.  Sapor.  A  son  of  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia,  by  whom 
Valerian  was  captured.     (See  Parthia.) 

2.  Sapor  II.  King  of  Persia,  defeated  by  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate (363  A.D.). 

Sassanidae.  A  Persian  dynasty  which  began  in  226  a.d. 
It  succeeded  the  Arsacidae  and  reigned  426  years. 

Scaevola,  Quintus  Miicius.  A  celebrated  jurist  and  lawyer, 
and  a  victim  of  the  massacres  at  the  Colline  Gate  (82  b.c). 

1.  Scipio  Barbatus,  Lucius  Cornelius.  One  of  the  commanders 
in  the  Second  Samnite  War,  the  great-great-grandfather  of  the 
conqueror  of  Hannibal. 

2.  Scipio,  Piiblius  Cornelius.  Father  of  Scipio  Africanus. 
He  was  consul  in  218  b.c,  with  Sempronius,  with  whom  he 
was  defeated  by  Hannibal  in  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

3.  Scipio  Africanus  Major,  Piiblius  Cornelius.  One  of  the 
greatest  Romans.  He  was  one  of  the  few  Roman  officers  who 
survived  the  battle  of  Cannae.  At  twenty-seven  he  was  sent 
as  proconsul  to  Spain,  and  in  three  years  drove  the  Cartha- 
ginians entirely  out  of  the  country.  In  205  b.c.  he  gained 
a  brilliant  and  decisive  victory  over  Hannibal  at  Zama.  He 
died  about  183  b.c. 

4.  Scipio  Asiaticus,  Lucius  Cornelius.  Brother  of  Scipio 
Africanus.     He  defeated  Antiochus  at  Magnesia  (190  b.c). 

5.  Scipio  .^milianus  Africanus,  Piiblius  Cornelius.  The  son  of 
Aemilius  Paulus,  the  victor  of  Pydna.  He  conducted  the 
siege  and  destruction  of  Carthage  (146  b.c),  thus  ending  the 
third  and  last  Punic  war. 

Secession  of  the  Plebs.  The  misery  of  the  poor  classes  and 
the  terrible  condition  of  the  debtors  gave  serious  cause  for 
complaint;  the  plebeians  left  the  city  and  established  them- 
selves on  the  Sacred  Mount,  a  hill  three  miles  from  Rome,  near 
the  Arno,  and  refused  to  fight  any  longer  for  the  patricians 
unless  their  claims  were  righted.  A.  compromise  was  effected 
in  494  B.c 


ROMAN  HISTORY  101 

Sejinus,  Liicius  JE'lius.  The  favorite  miiiist«r' 6f ,  Tiberius; ; 
During  the  retirement  of  the  monarch  at  'Capri,  Sejanus  con- 
trolled the  government.  He  desired  the  .throne  iov 'iiimself , 
and  to  attain  his  aim  he  caused  the  murder  of  Drusus,  son  of 
Tiberius,  and  led  the  emperor  to  believe  that  Agrippina,  the 
widow  of  Germanicus,  was  plotting  against  his  life.  But 
Tiberius  got  knowledge  of  Sejanus'  intentions  and  had  him 
put  to  death  (31  a.d.). 

Sempr6nius  L6ngus,  Tiberius.  The  Roman  consul  who  op- 
posed Hannibal  at  the  Trebia  and  was  defeated  (218  b.c). 

Seneca,  Liicius  Annseus.  A  Roman  philosopher  who  became 
the  tutor  of  the  emperor  Nero.     He  was  murdered  in  65  a.d. 

Sentinum.  A  town  of  Umbria  near  the  Adriatic  coast,  where 
the  Roman  consuls  Fabius  and  Decius  Mus  defeated  the 
Samnites,  Etruscans,  and  Gauls  in  the  Third  Samnite  War 
(295  B.C.). 

Sert6rius,  Quintus.  A  governor  of  Spain,  a  member  of  the 
Marian  party,  and  the  leader  of  the  Spanish  insurrection.  He 
was  an  able  general  and  defeated  all  the  commanders  whom 
Sulla  sent  against  him.  At  last  he  was  assassinated  by  one 
of  his  officers,  and  Pompey  put  an  end  to  the  insurrection 
(72  B.C.). 

S^rvius  TuUius.  The  fifth  king  of  Rome.  He  enlarged 
Rome's  territory  and  constructed  the  city  walls,  improved 
the  condition  of  the  plebeians,  and  regulated  the  military 
service. 

1.  Severus,  Alexander.  Emperor,  222-235  a.d.  He  succeeded 
Ms  cousin  Elagabalus.  He  was  a  virtuous  prince,  but  his 
severity  caused  a  mutiny  of  the  troops,  who  murdered  Ulpian, 
the  praetorian  praefect.  Not  long  after,  Severus  was  killed 
by  Maxim  during  a  campaign  in  Germany.  Severus  abolished 
the  praetorian  cohort,  but  retained  the  praetorian  praefect  as 
first  minister. 

2.  Severus,  Liicius  Septimius.  Emperor,  193-211  a.d.  He 
was  a  commander  of  the  Roman  legions  on  the  Danube,  who 
proclaimed  him  emperor  after  the  murder  of  Pertinax.     He 


102  ROMAN  HISTORY 

■was  recogiii?.ed  by  the  senate,  and  Julianus  was  put  to  death. 
Severus  ctied  in  Bricain  at  Eboracum  (York). 

-Sibylline  jeooks*.  Greek  books  containing  prophecies  bought 
by  Tarquinius  Superbus.  These  books  were  in  the  charge  of 
fifteen  magistrates  who  consulted  them  in  times  of  danger  or 
embarrassment. 

Sicily.  A  large  island  south  of  Italy.  The  principal  city, 
Syracuse,  was  an  ally  of  Rome  under  King  Hiero,  but  his 
successor  favored  Carthage.  In  212  b.c,  during  the  Second 
Punic  War,  Marcellus  captured  Syracuse  in  spite  of  a  gallant 
defense  conducted  by  the  celebrated  mathematician  Archime- 
des, who  perished  during  the  siege.  It  was  taken  with  part  of 
Sicily  by  Gaiseric  (461  a.d.). 

Social  War.     See  Italian  Question. 

Spain.  Anciently  called  Iberia,  from  the  name  of  its  first 
inhabitants,  the  Iberians.  It  was  occupied  by  the  Phoenicians 
and  the  Carthaginians,  but  surrendered  to  Rome  after  the 
victory  of  Zama  (202  b.c).  The  Romans  retained  possession 
of  Spain  with  great  trouble,  as  they  were  constantly  at  war  with 
the  Gauls  (see  Sertorius).  Caesar  governed  it  until  60  b.c.  It 
was  ravaged  by  the  Franks  in  256  a.d.  (see  "Vandals),  and 
finally  occupied  by  the  Visigoths  in  480  a.d.    (See  Euric.) 

Spartacus.  A  Thracian,  leader  of  the  insurgent  gladiators 
at  Capua,  defeated  by  Crassus  (71  b.c). 

Stilicho.  A  Vandal,  governor  of  the  Western  Empire  under 
Honorius.  He  defeated  Alaric  at  Pollentia  and  Verona  (402- 
403  A.D.).  During  his  administration,  the  Vandals  invaded 
and  ravaged  Gaul.  This  caused  dissatisfaction  with  the  gov- 
ernment, and  the  army  of  Britain  elected  an  emperor  of  its 
choice,  Constantine,  the  usurper,  who  soon  had  Britain  and 
Gaul  under  his  command.  The  Vandals  moved  to  Spain  and 
Portugal.  Stilicho  was  unjustly  accused  of  all  the  disorders 
and  was  beheaded  at  Ravenna,  408  a.d. 

St61o.     See  Licinius. 

Strassburg.  A  city  of  Alsace,  where  Julian  defeated  the 
Alamannians  and  Eranks  (357  a.d.). 


ROMAN   HISTORY  103 

Siilla,  Lticius  Cornelius.  A  Roman  officer  who  took  Jugurtha 
prisoner.  He  was  elected  consul  by  the  Optimates,  and  com- 
manded the  Roman  armies  against  King  Mithradates  YI.  The 
Populares,  led  by  Publius  Sulpicius  Rufus,  were  against  Sulla, 
and  Sulpicius  proposed  to  give  the  command  to  Marius.  This 
caused  a  rebellion;  Sulla  marched  upon  Rome  and  put  his 
enemies  to  death,  but  Marius  escaped.  The  Sulpician  law  was 
repealed.  Sulla  defeated  Mithradates  and  made  him  pay  an 
indemnity  (88  b.c).  Metellus  Pius,  Crassus,  and  Pompey,  all 
young  nobles,  joined  Sulla  and  overthrew  the  revolutionary 
party  of  Cinna,  Carbo,  and  the  son  of  Marius  at  the  Colline 
Gate.  Sulla  stained  his  victories  by  his  proscriptions  and 
his  order  to  break  open  the  grave  of  Marius  and  to  throw  his 
ashes  into  the  river.  He  was  made  perpetual  dictator.  He 
revised  the  constitution  and  reformed  the  government.  He 
gave  back  to  the  senate  the  control  of  the  assembly,  abolished 
the  office  of  censor,  and  increased  the  number  of  praetors  from 
six  to  eight.  The  consuls  were  made  civil  officers  with  no 
military  command,  except  in  case  of  calamity,  and  the  court 
of  Repetundae  was  definitely  established  (see  Repetundae). 
Sulla  remained  dictator  three  years ;  he  then  retired,  and  died 
in  78  B.C. 

Sulpicius  Riifus,  Pdblius.  A  young  leader  of  the  popular 
party  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  Wars.  He  proposed  the 
Sulpician  Laws,  one  clause  of  which  legalized  the  removal  of 
all  senators  who  were  deeply  in  debt.  The  measures  were  car- 
ried ;  but  his  proposal  of  a  new  law,  transferring  the  command 
from  Sulla  to  Marius,  brought  about  civil  war. 

Syagrius.  Son  of  Aegidius.  His  overthrow  by  Clovis,  king 
of  the  Salian  Franks,  ended  the  Roman  power  in  Gaul. 

Syracuse.     See  Sicily. 

Syria.  A  part  of  the  vast  empire  of  the  Seleucidae,  situated 
in  Asia  Minor.  After  the  defeat  of  Antiochus  at  Magnesia,  the 
empire,  with  the  exception  of  Syria,  was  taken  by  Mithradates 
the  Great.  After  the  victory  of  Pompey  over  Mithradates 
(65  B.C.),  Syria  was  made  a  Roman  province. 


104  ROMAN   HISTORY 


Tdcitus,  Gaius  Cornelius.  A  Roman  historian  of  the  Silver 
Age  (54-130  a.d.). 

Tarentum  (modern  Taranto).  The  principal  Greek  city  of 
southern  Italy,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name.  The  Romans 
violated  an  existing  treaty  and  appeared  with  a  fleet  near  the 
harbor  of  Tarentum.  In  the  ensuing  war  the  Tarentines  chose 
Pyrrhus  as  an  ally.  The  war  ended  with  the  defeat  of  Pyrrhus 
at  Beneventum  (275  b.c).  Tarentum  and  all  the  other  Greek 
cities  fell  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Rome,  and  were  obliged  to 
supply  troops  in  time  of  war.  During  the  Punic  Wars,  Taren- 
tum was  won  over  by  the  treachery  of  the  Carthaginians,  but 
was  soon  retaken,  as  well  as  Syracuse  (215  b.c). 

1.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  Lucius.  An  Etruscan,  the  fifth  king 
of  Rome.  During  his  reign  the  Roman  territory  was  extended 
and  important  works  were  carried  out,  —  the  great  sewers  of 
Rome,  the  Circus  Maximus,  the  Forum,  and  the  Capitoline 
temple.  He  was  murdered  by  the  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  and 
succeeded  by  Servius  Tullius. 

2.  Tarquinius  Suplrbus,  Liicius.  The  seventh  and  last  king 
of  Rome.  He  was  banished  in  510  b.c,  and  the  Republic  was 
established. 

Terence  (Piiblius  Terlntius  A'fer).  A  celebrated  comic  poet, 
born  at  Carthage  about  190  b.c 

Terentilian  Laws  or  Rogations.  The  tribune  Gaius  Terentil- 
ius  proposed  that  the  laws  should  be  codified ;  until  then  they 
had  not  been  written  down,  and  the  patricians  had  interpreted 
them  as  they  chose,  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  plebeians. 
This  proposition  met  with  great  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
patricians,  and  it  was  nearly  ten  years  before  the  plan  of 
codification  was  adopted.     (See  Decemvirate,  Twelve  Tables.) 

T^tricus.  One  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  defeated  by  Aurelian 
(275  A.D.). 

Teiitoburg  Forest.  A  district  midway  between  the  Rhine 
and  the   Weser,  where   the   Roman  legions   commanded   by 


ROMAN   HISTORY  105 

Varus  were   annihilated   by  the   Germans,  led  by  Arminius 

(9  B.C.). 

Teutons.     See  Cimbri. 

Thapsus.  A  city  of  Africa,  nearly  opposite  Sicily,  where 
Julius  Caesar  defeated  his  political  opponents  led  by  Metellus 
Scipio  in  46  b.c.  There  Cato  the  Censor  killed  himself  after 
the  defeat  of  the  republican  party. 

Theodoric.  A  grandson  of  Alaric  who  succeeded  Wallia  in 
419  A.D.  as  king  of  the  Visigoths.  He  aided  Aetius  against  the 
Huns,  and  was  killed  at  the  Battle  of  the  Peoples  (451  a.d.). 

Theodosius.  Emperor,  379-392  a.d.  He  succeeded  Valens 
in  378,  and  governed  the  Eastern  Empire.  He  became  sole 
ruler  after  the  death  of  the  two  emperors  of  the  West,  Gratian 
and  Valentinian  II.  Theodosius  was  capable  and  honest.  He 
kept  his  agreement  with  the  Goths  so  strictly  that  he  caused 
the  massacre  of  several  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  of  Thes- 
salonica  for  having  murdered  some  Gothic  soldiers.  The 
bishop  of  Milan  compelled  him  to  make  amends  for  this  act. 
Theodosius  died  in  395  a.d.,  leaving  the  government  of  the 
East  to  Arcadius  and  that  of  the  West  to  Honorius. 

Thermopylae.  A  city  of  Thessaly  where  Antiochus  was  de- 
feated at  the  beginning  of  the  Asiatic  War  (191  b.c). 

Thessalonica.  A  city  on  the  coast  of  Macedonia  where  Pom- 
pey,  pursued  by  Caesar,  established  a  government  intended  to 
rival  that  of  Rome.  Theodosius  made  it  the  chief  city  of  his 
administration. 

Thirty  Tyrants.  They  were  the  governors  of  the  western 
provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire  who,  from  260  to  275,  revolted 
against  Gallienus  and  Valerian,  but  were  subdued  by  Aurelian. 

Tiber.     The  river  on  which  Rome  is  built. 

Tiberius  Claudius  Nero.  Emperor,  14-37  a.d.,  successor  of 
Augustus.  He  had  married  Julia,  daughter  of  Augustus  and 
widow  of  Agrippa,  an  able  general  and  statesman,  but  dis- 
agreed with  her  and  divorced  her.  At  first  an  able  ruler,  he 
became  a  gloomy  and  suspicious  tyrant.  He  had  recourse 
to  the   delators,  and   punished  his   opponents   with   cruelty. 


106  ROMAN   HISTORY 

Germanicus,  his  adopted  son,  was  governor  of  Germany,  and 
for  three  years  he  tried  in  vain  to  regain  the  territory  lost  by 
Varus  at  the  Teutoburg  Forest.  The  undertaking  was  aban- 
doned by  order  of  Tiberius  ;  Germanicus  was  given  the  govern- 
ment of  Parthia,  but  he  disagreed  with  Piso,  his  first  officer, 
and  died  suddenly.  Agrippina,  his  wife,  suspected  foul  play 
on  the  part  of  Piso,  who  probably  acted  on  the  order  of 
Tiberius.  Following  the  advice  of  his  first  minister,  Sejanus, 
Tiberius  retired  to  the  island  of  Capri,  leaving  Sejanus  at  the 
head  of  the  government;  but  discovering  the  schemes  of  his 
minister,  he  had  him  put  to  death  in  31  a.d.  (see  Sejanus). 
Tiberius  himself  died  in  37  a.d.,  leaving  the  throne  to  Gains 
Caligula,  son  of  Germanicus. 

Tibiillus,  A'lbius.     Latin  poet  (44-18  B.C.). 

Ticinus.  A  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  where  Hannibal  defeated 
the  consul  Publius  Scipio  in  the  Second  Punic  War  (218  e.g.). 

Tigellinus.     Emperor  Nero's  freedman  and  adviser. 

Titles.  One  of  the  three  original  Roman  tribes.  (See  Luceres 
and  Ramnes.) 

Titus  Flavius  Sabinus  Vespasianus.  The  fifth  Flavian  em- 
peror (19-81  A.D.).  He  succeeded  his  father,  Vespasian,  during 
whose  reign  he  took  and  destroyed  Jerusalem  (70  a.d.).  The 
great  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  which  destroyed  the  cities 
of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  took  place  during  his  reign. 

Trajan  (Marcus  U'lpius  Trajanus).  Emperor,  89-117  a.d., 
successor  of  Nerva.  He  undertook  a  successful  campaign 
against  the  Dacians,  and  founded  the  Roman  province  of 
Dacia.  He  also  placed  Arabia  under  his  dominion,  thus 
giving  direct  communication  with  Egypt  and  Syria.  His 
reign  brought  the  Roman  Empire  to  its  height,  and  was 
called  the  Silver  Age. 

Transalpine  Gaul  (Gaul  the  other  side  of  the  Alps).  It 
extended  in  southern  Gaul  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Alps, 
but  did  not  comprehend  Massilia  and  its  territory.  It  was 
invaded  by  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons  before  their  victory  over 
the  Romans  at  Aransio,  governed  by  Caesar,  invaded  by  the 


ROMAN  HISTORY  107 

Franks  in  256  a.d.,  and  ravaged  by  the  Vandals  in  406  a.d. 
It  became  the  seat  of  the  struggles  of  Aetius  against  the 
Burgundians,  the  Franks,  and  the  Alamannians.  The  Visi- 
goths, led  by  Wallia,  settled  there.  Clovis,  king  of  the  Salian 
Franks,  overthrew  Syagrius,  who  was  the  last  representative 
of  the  Roman  power  in  Gaul,  in  464  a.d.    (See  Cisalpine  Gaul.) 

Trasimenus.  A  lake  of  Etruria  where  Hannibal  defeated 
the  Roman  general  Flaminius  (217  B.C.). 

Trebia.  A  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  where  Hannibal  defeated 
Sempronius  Longus  in  218  b.c. 

Tribune.  An  officer  chosen  from  the  plebeians  to  protect 
them  against  the  injustice  of  the  patricians.  The  power  given 
to  the  tribune  was  called  jus  auxili.  At  first  there  were  two 
tribunes,  but  this  number  was  gradually  increased  to  ten. 
They  had  the  authority  to  call  meetings  of  the  plebeians 
(see  Comitia  Tributa,  Comitia  Centuriata,  Comitia  Curiata). 
They  soon  overstepped  their  power  and  during  Sulla's  ad- 
ministration they  were  deprived  of  their  right  to  initiate 
legislation  except  with  the  authority  of  the  senate.  The  trib- 
unes recovered  their  full  power  under  Pompey,  and  finally  lost 
it  under  Augustus. 

Triiimvirate.  A  political  association  of  three  men  (triumvirs) 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  governing  Rome.  The  First  Trium- 
virate came  to  power  in  60  b.c,  and  was  composed  of  Pompey, 
Caesar,  and  Crassus.  The  members  of  the  Second  Triumvirate, 
created  in  45  b.c,  were  Octavian,  Antony,  and  Lepidus. 

Tiillius.     See  Servius. 

Tiillus  Hostilius.  The  patrician  king  of  Rome  who  succeeded 
Numa  Pompilius.  He  conquered  Alba  Longa  {^Qi^  b.c)  and 
made  Rome  the  chief  city  of  the  Latin  Confederacy. 

Twelve  Tables.  An  arrangement  and  codification  of  the  laws 
as  proposed  by  the  Terentilian  rogations.  The  work  was  per- 
formed by  the  decemvirs.  It  was  advantageous  to  the  plebeians, 
as  it  regulated  the  rights  of  creditors  and  those  of  the  pater 
familias.  In  addition  to  this,  the  Canuleian  Law  gave  the 
plebeians  the  right  of  marrying  patricians.     (See  Conubium.) 


108  ROMAN  HISTORY 


U'lpian.     A  praetorian  praefect  under  Alexander  Severus. 

U'mbrians.  A  people  of  the  Umbro-Sabellians.  Their  terri- 
tory was  on  the  northeastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic. 

TJ'mbro-Sabellians.  One  of  the  two  principal  races  of  Italy. 
The  other  was  the  Latin. 

U'tica.  The  Roman  headquarters  and  military  depot  near 
Carthage. 


Valens.  Emperor  of  the  East,  364-378  a.d.  He  was  the 
brother  of  Valentinian  I.,  by  whom  he  was  made  emperor. 
He  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Adrianople  in  a  campaign 
against  the  Goths  and  Visigoths  (378  a.d.). 

1.  Valentinian  I.  Emperor,  364-375  a.d.,  successor  of  Jovian. 
He  was  an  able  ruler,  but  too  severe.  He  gave  his  brother 
Valens  the  government  of  the  East.  His  reign  was  un- 
eventful. 

2.  Valentinian  II.  Emperor,  375-392  a.d.  Son  of  Valen- 
tinian I.     He  was  murdered  at  the  age  of  twenty. 

3.  Valentinian  III.  Emperor,  423-455  a.d.  Son  of  Con- 
stantius  and  Placidia.  During  his  reign  Gaiseric  and  the 
Vandals  invaded  Italy,  and  the  Alamannians  and  the  Franks 
crossed  the  Rhine.  In  452  a.d.  Attila  and  the  Huns  invaded 
Gaul  and  were  defeated  by  Aetius,  aided  by  Theodoric,  king 
of  the  Visigoths,  in  the  Battle  of  the  Peoples.  Attila  invaded 
Italy.  The  Saxons  occupied  Britain  449  a.d.  Valentinian 
was  assassinated  in  455  a.d. 

Valerian.  Emperor,  253-260  a.d.  He  was  captured  by 
Sapor  of  Persia,  and  died  in  captivity. 

Vdndals.  A  tribe  of  eastern  Germans.  Constantine  gave 
them  a  settlement  in  Pannonia  on  the  borders  of  the  Danube. 
They  crossed  the  Rhine,  entered  Gaul,  and  ravaged  it  for  three 
years  (406  a.d.).  Their  king,  Gaiseric,  settled  with  them  in 
Spain,  and  later  was  called  to  Africa  (see  Boniface  and  Eudoxia). 


ROMAN  HISTORY  109 

He  plundered  Rome  and  was  defeated  by  Ricimer.  The  Van- 
dals became  masters  of  the  western  Mediterranean  and  of 
northern  Africa. 

Varro,  Gaius  Terentius.  A  Roman  consul,  defeated  by 
Hannibal  at  Cannae  (216  b.c). 

Varus,  Lucius  Quintilius.  A  Roman  consul  who  lost  the 
battle  of  the  Teutoburg  Forest  against  the  Germans  (9  a.d.). 

Veil.  The  principal  city  of  southern  Etruria,  taken  by 
Camillus  (396  b.c). 

Vercellae.  A  city  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  where  Marius  and 
Catulus  defeated  the  Cimbri  (101  b.c). 

Vercingetorix.  An  Arvernian  chief  who  was  defeated  and 
captured  by  Caesar  at  Alesia,  52  b.c     He  was  beheaded. 

Vergil  (Publius  Vergilius  Maro).  A  celebrated  Latin  poet  of 
the  Augustan  age  (70-19  b.c). 

Verginius.  Governor  of  North  Germany.  He  supported  the 
insurrection  of  Vindex  at  the  end  of  Nero's  reign. 

Ver6na.  A  city  of  northeastern  Italy,  where  Stilicho  defeated 
Alaric  (403  a.d.). 

Vespasian  (Titus  Flavius  Vespasianus).  The  fourth  Flavian 
emperor,  69-79  a.d.  He  was  commander  in  the  East,  and 
fought  in  Syria  against  the  Jews  who  had  revolted  to  gain 
independence.  He  was  supported  by  Mucianus  and  Verginius, 
the  governor  of  Germany.  Mucianus  slew  Vitellius,  the  occu- 
pant of  the  throne,  and  secured  it  for  Vespasian.  During  his 
reign  the  Colosseum,  or  Flavian  amphitheater,  was  built.  His 
son  Titus  destroyed  Jerusalem  (70  a.d.). 

Via  Latina  (Latin  Way).  A  highway  running  through  the 
valley  of  the  Liris  from  Naples  to  Rome. 

Viminal.     One  of  the  hills  of  Rome. 

Vindex.  The  chief  of  the  insurrection  in  Gaul  during  Nero^s 
reign  in  68  a.d.     (See  Verginius  and  Galba.) 

Visigoths.     See  Alaric,  Goths. 

Vitellius.  Commander  of  the  army  in  Germany,  by  whom 
he  was  made  emperor.  He  defeated  Otho  near  Placentia  and 
took  the  throne.     In  his  turn  he  was  overthrown  and  killed  by 

HAND.  GK.  &  ROM.  HIST.  —  8 


110  ROMAN   HISTORY 

Mucianus,  the  general  of  Vespasian,  who  secured  the  throne 
for  the  latter  (69  a.d.). 

V61scians.  Neighboring  tribes  of  Rome.  Together  with 
their  allies,  the  Aequians  and  Etruscans,  they  rebelled  against 
Rome,  but  were  defeated  by  Camillus  (386  B.C.). 


W 

Wallia.  Brother  of  Athaulf .  He  brought  the  Visigoths  back 
to  Gaul ;  they  became  foederati  and  settled  in  southern  Gaul. 
Wallia  died  in  419  a.d.,  leaving  Theodoric,  grandson  of  Alaric, 
as  his  successor. 


Zama.  A  city  of  North  Africa,  near  Carthage,  where  Scipio 
Africanus  routed  the  army  of  Hannibal  (202  b.c). 

Zenobia.  Queen  of  Palmyra,  widow  of  Odenatus.  She 
wished  to  extend  her  dominions  to  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor. 
Aurelian  defeated  her  and  destroyed  Palmyra. 

Zoroaster.     See  Mazdeism. 


Typography  by  J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.,  Nokvvood,  Mass. 


Mythology 


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